INSTITUTE OF PHILOSOPHY OF NATURE
Abstract
Unlike the atomic system, the solar system, planet system and galactic system are observable. We may not have to make any model to understand an observable system because the observed facts directly describe the truth. However, illusion in observation cannot be ruled out. We observe, the sun goes around the earth but this does not describe the truth. Thus, what we observe cannot always claim to be truth. We need to verify different aspects of an observation before we declare the observed fact as reality of nature. The earth goes around the sun is a verified truth from analysis of other observations. We have observed the structure of galaxies however, it is necessary to compare and analyze the observed structure of galaxy with the known structures of similar systems before accepting it as a reality. The conformed truth of different features of structure of centrally organized systems as revealed from the structure of solar system and planet systems can be summarized in the following manner.
The systems are similar in respect of nucleus, extra-nuclear space structure surrounding the nucleus [1], innumerable space matter particles within the space structure and few orbital bodies. The nucleus and extra-nuclear space structure form one integral system. The moving nucleus carries the extra-nuclear structure and a rotating nucleus rotates the associated space structure. The space matter particles in the spinning space-fluid go around the nucleus like the orbital bodies but the orbital bodies are large & few in number whereas the space matter particles are innumerable & they belong to finer domain. Galaxies are one domain up systems than the domain of solar system [2]. If the solar system is scaled up to the size of galaxy then all components of solar system would be scaled up by the domain change scale factor. After scale up the space matter particles (atoms and molecules) of solar system would assume the size of stars in the galaxy, the planets of solar system would assume the size of the so-called event horizon of orbital black holes and the sun will assume the size of so-called event horizon of the black hole as the nucleus of galaxy. If one assumes the stars are orbital bodies in a galaxy then the existing similarity between the structural features of galactic system and solar system would be lost. The innumerable space matter particles (atoms and molecules) in the extra-nuclear structure of sun and planets can only be compared with the innumerable stars in the extra-nuclear structure of galaxy. Again, few orbital bodies (planets) of the sun and few orbital bodies (satellites) of planets are comparable to few orbital black holes of the galaxy. If stars are erroneously accepted as the orbital bodies of the galaxy, the expected size of the nucleus of galaxy is drastically reduced from its real size confirming to the dimension of so-called event horizon of black hole. The nucleus of galaxy in the size of event horizon would naturally block the star-light coming from behind but for a nucleus with drastically reduced size would allow the said star-light to reach the observer on earth. Having accepted the reduced size of the nucleus of galaxy problem arises as to why not we receive the light from stars behind when it is not blocked by the nucleus (Fig.1a). The problem was resolved by advanced theory on gravitation of light where the massive nucleus of galaxy attracts the light passing close to nucleus. The distance up to which the gravitational pull is effective is known as the event horizon. But the reality is simple with the size of nucleus of galaxy confirming to size of so-called event horizon of the black hole (Fig.1b) where it does not require the elegant theory of black hole to explain the galactic phenomenon. The paper also discusses the reasons for not receiving the natural radiation from nucleus of galaxy similar to solar radiation. It also discusses how the outer stars of galaxy have higher orbital motion than the gravitationally predicted value without the consideration of hidden mass. We cannot directly examine the assumed random motion of space matter particles (atoms & molecules) in the extra-nuclear space structure of the sun or earth but we can observe the state of rest or random motion of space matter bodies in extra-nuclear space structure of galaxy. From the observation of the dynamism of stars in the galaxy, one can infer that the molecules in gas are not in random motion. The author has explained his original work elsewhere [3] the laws of gas from the basic interactions of mass and space without the consideration of random motion of molecules.
Discussion
The physical universe comprises mass and space as the basic constituent [4]. Matter in any domain is a mass-space integral system and any space pocket contains space matter particles in finer domain [4]. The light particles though are mass less in atomic mass units (AMU) but they have mass in photonic mass units (PMU) [5]. Light particle (photon), atomic system, planet system, solar system and galactic system are centrally organized integral systems having internal stability and external interaction ability [2]. Any centrally organized system in any domain is a component matter of higher up domain thereby has its contribution towards equilibrium of immediate higher up domain. In turn the higher up domain is a constituent of next higher up domain and so on. The limiting growth of this kind of structure is the universe itself. Though we come across different interactions of particle/bodies having name, form and form-based properties but each one is a derivative of formless mass and space interaction. The basic interaction in all forms is due to the primary instinct (motivation for interaction) of formless basic constituents (mass and space). When association of mass and space give rise to a form (object), the object with a name exhibits its characteristic property which is a function of both the basic mass-space interaction and the geometrical form. For example, the property of a knife is a function of the form-less property of steel and the geometrical form of the knife. Neither the formless property nor the geometry alone can render the property of formed object. The mass-space interaction is the common cause of all fundamental forces of nature [1]. Therefore, the centrally organized structures formed due to different fundamental forces operating in different domains should exhibit similarity. Thus, the structures of atomic system, solar system and galactic system are most likely to be similar but we have overlooked the same. The mass-less photon particle is now conceptualized as mass bearing particle of micro-micro domain matter [5]. In future we would discover light particle too is a structural body comprising still finer constituents. On the basis of uniformity of nature, this author argues that all centrally organized systems have hidden similarity of structures and features. Hence any feature noticed in the structure of matter in any domain is a reality for all domains. Thus, a general model for centrally organized structures can be prepared by incorporating different domain specific features observed in different domains. This leads towards a general model for solar system, atomic system, galactic system and light particle system. This structural model developed on the basis of uniformity of nature would be close to reality. In this new concept atom is a miniature solar system and galaxy is a gigantic solar system. The structure and feature of galactic system can be obtained by suitably scaling up the solar system. In this scale, up process all featured components of solar system will be magnified by one domain up size to reveal their existence in the galaxy. When the solar system is scaled up by a factor 10x to resemble a galaxy, each and every component of solar system would automatically be scaled up by the same factor (10x). We would then notice that, 1) the nucleus of solar system (sun) would assume the size of the so called event horizon of the black hole as the nucleus of the galaxy; 2) the orbital planets of solar system would assume the size of the event horizons of different orbital black holes in the galaxy; 3) the space matter particles of the extra-nuclear space structure of solar system (atoms/molecules) would assume the size of stars and compound stars in the galaxy; 4) the radiation particles (photons) from the nucleus of solar system would become mega photons (ions). Thus, the radiation particles from nucleus of galaxy are not photons but mega-photons/ions and electrons.
Sometimes we make ad hock assumptions ignoring the feasibility to justify the deviations of natural laws. When variation of gravity potential was noticed in deep collar mine it was attributed to the effect of irregular mass distribution within earth in the vicinity of the hole. To minimize the effect of uneven mass, an Airy-type geophysical experiment was conducted in a 2-km-deep hole in the Greenland ice cap at depths between 213 m and 1673 m to test for possible violations of Newton’s inverse square law where the entire mass was ice. An anomalous variation in gravity totalling 3.87 mGal (3.87×10-5 m/s2) in a depth interval of 1460 m was observed. This may be attributed either to a breakdown of Newtonian gravity or to unexpected density variations in the rock below the ice [6]. Unexpected variation is also noticed in different heights of atmosphere. These gravitational anomalies remain yet to be resolved which indicates gravity works in a manner not explainable by mass-attraction alone. The dynamics of outer stars of galaxy defy the law of gravity which questions the universal status of gravity. It is invariably found that the stellar rotational velocity remains constant, or “flat”, with increasing distance away from the galactic centre [7]. The faster motion of outer stars of galaxies poses problem on the stability of orbiting stars. The problem was resolved by introducing dark matter with hidden mass at desired locations within the extra-nuclear structure of galaxy. This led to existence of dark matter with hidden mass. The hidden mass concept is unnatural. If it is a reality then why it appears only in specific locations? In the following analysis we shall see that the problem lies with the nature of dynamics and not with gravity of dark matter.
What made us not to think the structure of galaxy in the light of the structure of solar system?
Despite huge number of stars in a galaxy, we assumed the stars are orbital bodies in the galaxy. Having assumed the stars as orbital body, the size of nucleus of galaxy could be imagined roughly in the range of 10 to 100 times larger than the size of orbital body (stars) but not having its diameter in the range of so-called event-horizon of the black hole. It is natural that light coming from stars behind the nucleus of galaxy would be blocked by the nucleus of galaxy and cannot reach the observer. But problem arises when one thinks the size of nucleus is smaller than its real size. One with preconceived smaller size of galactic nucleus wonders as to why light does not pass through the closer vicinity of the nucleus. He then tries to justify the above phenomenon by further assumption that light is gravitated into the nucleus. One would realize how one erroneous concept (size of nucleus of galaxy) gives birth to another erroneous conclusion (gravitation of light). No theory can be established without experimental conformation. But sometimes erroneous interpretation of experimental result may help in establishing erroneous theories. Light from distant stars while passing close to sun is seen bending towards sun as if the sun pulls the light. If one ignores other phenomena of light such as refraction, he would agree on the gravitational phenomenon of light. We see the sun from earth 8 minutes and 20 seconds before its visibility through the line of sight. Here we provide justification that the incoming sun light reaching the surface of the earth pass through gradually increasing air density thereby undergoes continuous refraction and enable us to see the sun 8 minutes and 20 seconds before its visibility through line of sight. The bending of light caused due to refraction has resemblance with the effect of gravity on light. Thus, either the effect of refraction or the effect of gravity is enough to argue for the cause of bending of light. Sometimes consistency of nature becomes the victim by inconsistent logic and inappropriate analysis. We consider refraction effect on bending of sun-light in earth’s atmosphere, consider gravitational effect on star-light while passing close to sun and extend the erroneous gravitational effect to justify the erroneous black hole concept. It may so happen that no such black holes exist in nature and its existence is only hypothetical. We shall now analyze why the nucleus of galaxy in the size of so-called event horizon does not radiate like the sun? In fact, every nucleus radiates mass rich particles which are two domains lower than the size of the nucleus [2]. We however carry the notion that all radiation takes place only through light particles (photons). Macro celestial bodies (stars, planets, satellites) radiate photons at different energy level depending on the thermal charge state of the celestial body. The radiation particles are two domains down from the domain size of the nucleus celestial body. Galaxies are macro-macro domain celestial bodies. Hence the radiation particles of galactic nucleus are expected in sizes of one domain up the size of photons which may be called mega photons or atomic ions. If the galactic nucleus does not radiate photon but radiates atomic ions then we won’t be able to see the galaxy. On the other hand, we won’t find the radiated ions reaching the earth because the ions would get trapped in the interstellar/inter-galactic medium. This is how the nuclei of galaxies in the size of so-called event horizon remain dark before us.
The space matter particle in the extra-nuclear space structure of solar system when scaled up to one domain higher becomes stellar bodies. Further we notice from centrally organized macro systems (solar system, planet system) that the orbital bodies are few in numbers whereas the space matter particles are numerous. Hence the observed innumerable stars in a galaxy are space matter particles and not orbital bodies. If the gravity-based dynamics of space matter particles and the gravity-based dynamics of orbital bodies are different then working out the dynamics of space matter particles using the dynamics of orbital bodies would lead to error. We have undesirably worked out the dynamics of stars by considering them as orbital bodies and faced problem. Instead of discovering the appropriate dynamics of stars we have erroneously imposed the dynamics of orbital bodies for the stars. Use of improper gravity-based dynamics of stars has necessitated the introduction of hypothetical mass at definite locations to make the dynamical equation functional. This is how we are made to believe the existence of dark matter with hidden mass. The hidden mass concept is faulty and fouls with some scientist. Dr. Moto Milgrom says, it is the hidden physics and not the hidden mass required to explain the excess motion of outer stars of a galaxy [8]. On the other hand, if we use the gravity-based fluid dynamics then there won’t be any problem in justifying the faster motion of the outer stars of galaxy.
Dark matter or dark physics?
The space matter particles remain suspended in space medium due to mass-space attraction [9]. They respond the gravity of nucleus celestial body but unable to move individually within space medium by breaking off their association with space medium. Thus, they can make only group motion in the form of mass-space composite fluid. For this reason, the dense atoms and molecules present in the atmosphere of a celestial body do not settle down to the surface of the celestial body even though gravity is more than centrifugal force. The behaviour of stars in the galaxy reveals that the space matter particles in centrally organized systems do not make any random motion. Hence the postulate that the space matter particles in the extra-nuclear space structure (atmosphere) of sun and planets execute random motion is not correct. The rotation of nucleus body rotates the associated space-fluid (physical space containing the space matter particles). The physical space being invisible an observer has scope to see only the motion of space matter particles within the extra-nuclear space structure of a centrally organized system. The observation of individual particles (stars) misguides one as if the space matter particles are orbital bodies. Astronomers erroneously conclude the stars as orbital bodies and inappropriately apply the gravitational equation of orbital bodies to stars. The improper use of dynamics fails to explain why the outer stars have higher velocity than that predictable by gravity.
Fluid dynamics and velocity of stars
In the new concept, physical space itself is a compressible fluid. Space with space-matter particles suspended in space due to space-mass interaction is also a compressible fluid. Large space pocket in a galaxy contains stars and sub-stellar bodies as space matter particles; the space pocket in the atmosphere of a celestial body (stars, planets) contains atoms and molecules as space matter particles; and the space pocket within extra-nuclear space structure of atom contains photons as space matter particles [2]. Space with or without space matter particle is a fluid and it obeys the laws of fluid dynamics. For space fluid with space matter particle, the velocity of space matter particle is same as the spatial velocity of the space fluid adjacent to the particle.
The formation of extra nuclear space structure of galaxy following the basic mass-space interaction is discussed below. The mass of the nucleus of galaxy attracts the surrounding physical space and forms a space density (space content per unit volume) graded structure surrounding the nucleus [1]. The size of the extra nuclear space structure is a function of the mass of nucleus of galaxy and the space density of inter galactic space. The space structure does not collapse on to the surface of the nucleus because the space-space repulsion [4] resists the compaction of space thereby developing pressure within the space. The compact extra-nuclear space structure attracts the mass rich space matter particles/bodies and keeps them in suspension within space medium due to the basic mass-space attraction [1]. Therefore, the number density of space matter particles is proportional to the space density (space content per unit volume). Any space pocket is a mass-space integral system therefore experiences gravity due to its space content and the said space pocket again experiences centrifugal force due to its mass content. A rotating nucleus has a spinning extra-nuclear structure. The spatial tangential velocity along the equatorial plane goes on increasing with increase of distance from the nucleus. For the integral structure of galaxy, the angular velocity ω of space fluid is expected to remain constant for the entire space structure due to fluid coupling. This means, the tangential velocity v at any distance R from the nucleus is given by the relation v=Rω. But the equation does not obey beyond a distance due to the influence of boundary condition. There are many galaxies in the universe and the galaxies are equidistant from one another. Thus, any galaxy is surrounded by other galaxies. The rotations of different galaxies about their own axes tend to spin the inter-galactic space medium in different directions. Therefore, the intergalactic space remains stationary (Fig.3). Hence the stationary intergalactic space fluid renders resistance to the spinning motion of extra-nuclear space structure of individual galaxies.
Analysis of velocity profile of extra-nuclear space structure of galaxy and evaluation of orbital velocity of stars.
The extra-nuclear space structure of a rotating galaxy may be divided into three zones based on the space density gradient (Fig.2).
The inner zone starts from the surface of the nucleus (so-called event horizon of black hole) at Ro and ends at a radius R1. Any space pocket in this zone experiences greater gravitational force than the centrifugal force. Thus, this zone remains bonded relatively strongly with the nucleus and rotates at same angular velocity ω as that of the nucleus like a rigid body. For example, the atmosphere of the earth rotates at same angular speed as that of the earth. An object floating in the spinning space fluid in this zone attains the velocity of the space fluid. This velocity is not enough to keep the object in a closed orbit. Hence no orbital body is feasible in the inner zone. On the other hand, the space matter particles in the atmosphere orbiting the nucleus along with the space fluid do not fall down to the surface of the nucleus even though gravity is more than the centrifugal force. This happens because the space and space matter particles forms one integral system due to mass-space attraction. In this zone the spatial tangential velocity v at any distance R from the nucleus is given by the relation v=Rω. At the surface of the nucleus of galaxy, the space fluid experiences maximum gravity and experiences minimum centrifugal force. With increase of radius the gravitational attraction decreases and the centrifugal force increases. At some radius R=R1 gravity becomes equal to centrifugal force. For R less than R1 gravity dominates over the centrifugal force. Beyond R1 gravitational bonding disappears and the outer space structure slows down due to its attachment with the stationary inter galactic space. R1 is the mark of beginning of the second zone. As the velocity of outer part drops down the gravitational bonding is re-established. The velocity profile in the second part of the extra nuclear space structure is regulated by break and make of gravitational bond and the spatial velocity of space fluid at distance R, is given by the relation v2 = GM/R, where G is universal gravitational constant and M is the mass of the central gravitating body. The second zone extends up to R2 beyond which the space density becomes too low where the make and break of gravitational bond becomes inoperative. The third zone of extra-nuclear structure starts from R2 and extends up to R3 at boundary of galaxy. In this zone the space density gradient is gentle and nearly linear. The gravitational bonding of the third zone tends to spin the space fluid following the relation v= Rω2, where ω2 is the angular velocity of space fluid at R2. But the resistance of stationary inter-galactic space fluid at boundary restricts the increase of orbital velocity. Thus, the orbital velocity of space fluid and the space matter particles remains more or less constant in third zone. An orbital body placed in the third zone attains the velocity of space fluid where it would run away of its orbit. On the other hand, the space matter particles (stars) in third zone of the extra-nuclear space structure of galaxy will not fly off even though the orbital velocity is high. There is no need of dark matter to justify the orbital velocity of stars because the stars are space matter particles and not orbital bodies in the galaxy. While working out the dynamics of orbital planets in solar system we never account for the mass of space matter particles in the extra nuclear space structure of solar system though it has a significance value. The mass effect of space matter particles on the dynamics of orbital bodies in solar system is insignificant compared to mass of the sun. Therefore, the dynamics of solar system is quite satisfactory even with ignoring the mass effect of space matter particles of solar system. Likewise, the mass effect of the space matter particles (stars & sub-staler bodies) in a galaxy may be insignificant compared to the huge mass of the nucleus of galaxy in the size of event horizon of so-called black hole. The stars in the galaxy being space matter particles, maintains its integrity with the space structure. Thus, even though the stars experience an unbalanced force between gravity and centrifugal force, it neither gravitate into the nucleus nor fly off the galactic system. Hence there is no need to consider hidden mass of dark matter for the dynamics of stars in the galaxy.
We evaluate the orbital velocity of stars from red shift due to Doppler’s effect. There are other natural phenomena speculated for red shift. The “tired light” hypothesis is a theory that challenges the theory of expanding universe. This concept was first proposed in 1929 by Fritz Zwicky [10]. The theory suggests that photons lose energy over time as they collide with other particles. This energy loss causes red-shift, where distant objects appear redder than nearby ones. Another alternative explanation on “tired-light” hypothesis claimed that the light from galaxy reddens because it loses energy as it passes through space. The second hypothesis agrees with the doctrine of Lord Buddha. In this scenario, distant galaxies are red not because they are moving [11] but because their light has travelled farther and gotten pooped along the way. We also know all macro celestial bodies decaying by radiating photons, the atomic nuclei decaying by radiating micro photons, the macro-macro celestial bodies decaying by radiating mega photons. From above we find objects decay by radiating particles of two domains down the domain size of the object. Thus, there is every chance that a light particle photon is subject to decay by radiating micro-micro photons. It is difficult to verify the decay of photon without knowing the physics of micro photons and micro-micro photon. Due to our limitation, it is not possible to understand the mechanism of decay of light particles, however there is nothing wrong in speculating the decay of photon in the light of uniformity of nature. In the above circumstances one cannot be sure of the orbital velocity of stars in a galaxy worked out considering only the Doppler’s effect. The orbital velocity of outer stars in a galaxy worked out from Doppler’s effect (Fig.2) is likely to have difference with the theoretical velocity obtained from standard gravitational dynamics as well as that worked out using newly suggested fluid dynamics model. The author anticipates that the difference would disappear after proper knowledge of actual velocity. The actual orbital velocity of stars is required for the correct analysis of dynamics of stars. It is premature to consider the presence of hidden mass. In any case, the stars in a galaxy being a space matter particle, the dynamics of orbital bodies is not applicable. Scientists have already unified the gravitational mass & the inertial mass and further equated mass with energy. In this scenario, promoting the hidden mass concept only complicates physics.
Conclusion
Centrally organized systems in different domains obey uniformity of nature and have similar structure and features. Considering any one domain system, say in macro solar system we notice presence different structural components in different domains such as the Sun and orbital planets in macro domain, the space matter particles in micro domain and radiation particles in micro-micro domain. Each featured component has definite dynamics within the structure. If we examine the galactic system, one domain above macro domain then each of the featured components would appear in one domain up size. The space matter particle in macro solar system will assume the size of macro stellar and sub-stellar bodies. Thus, there is every chance of committing error in ascertaining whether a given particle/body in a domain up scale is a space matter particle or an orbital body.
Examining the galactic system in macro-macro domain it is seen that the space matter particles (stars) are erroneously considered as orbital bodies being biased with macro systems. The dynamics of orbital bodies and the dynamics of space matter particles are different. The stars in the galaxy being space matter particles require the analysis of fluid dynamics but unknowingly we have applied the dynamics of orbital bodies and faced problem to justify the faster motion of outer stars of galaxy. All problems relating to centrally organized system can be resolved harmoniously by considering both structural and functional similarity. The concepts of black hole, dark matters and the concept of random motion atoms & molecules in air are unnatural and unwarranted and the respective concerned phenomenon can be understood without any additional domain specific assumption. The new understanding without deviation from uniformity of nature in different domains has scope of broadening the spectrum of science.
The flat galactic rotation curves seem to suggest that each galaxy is surrounded by significant amounts of dark matter. The new interpretation of galactic dynamics does not require hidden mass. Black hole and random motion of atoms and molecules is defective concepts. Lack of proper understanding has made us to make unnatural assumptions. They are redundant in understanding the reality in a natural manner.
This article is a part of the original work published in the book “Universal Mystery Unfolded”, Volume-3 of the series “Dynamics of universe; interplay of matter, space and charge”, 2012 by the same author.
Reference
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https://w.astro.berkeley.edu/~mwhite/darkmatter/rotcurve.html.
Moto Milgrom, Newtonian Gravity Falls Down, New Scientist 7 March 1985, Page-45.
https://philosophyofnature.org.in/new-interactions-of-mass-and-space-is-the-cause-of-gravity.
