Abstract

Any event in the universe has a beginning as well as an end. Thus, it is natural to think that the physical universe itself had a beginning (birth) and it is going to have an end (death). Vedic science describes the birth and death of universe is cyclic. Vedas always persuaded a creative agent. Brahman (God) is the creator of the universe and the creation is not one time but many times in cycles of fixed time interval. Modern science accepts the birth of universe from Big Bang.  From the uniform distribution of galaxies in the sky, the nature of red-shifts of light from distant galaxies and the nature of background radiation from all directions, scientists traced back to the birth of universe from an explosion followed by expansion which they call Big Bang Theory. Scientists made many assumptions to arrive at the precondition for Big-Bang. Big-Bang theory considers onetime creation of the universe. For a cyclic universe the end condition of one cycle is the start condition of next cycle. Both Vedic science and modern science make many assumptions to explain their perceived life pattern of the universe. Though the Big-Bang is accepted by many but it has many limitations which is discussed in this paper. This author values both concepts on universe formation and proposes a new theory using the most fundamental interactions of mass and space. The new theory justifies periodic integration and differentiation of mass and space of the universe leading to cyclic birth and death of the universe. 

Hindu Cosmology (Vedic Science)

According to Hindu cosmology, the universe is cyclically created and destroyed. The Big Bang Theory of modern science describes only onetime creation assuming many preconditions therefore does not relate to the true beginning of everything but only the beginning of the present phase of one cycle of the universe. In Vedic language Brahman (God) creates the universe in a periodic manner and the period is twice the life period of Brahma. There are 360×100 day-cycles in the life period of Brahma expressed in Brahma’s time scale (1-day time part of Brahma’s day is 4.32 billion years in earthly time scale). Lord Brahma has a life span for 100 Brahma-years which is 311 trillion and 40 billion earthly years. After Brahma’s “death”, it is necessary that another 100 Brahma years pass until a new Brahma is born and the whole creation begins a new phase. This process is repeated again and again, forever with the cycle time of 622.08 trillion years. Hence Big Bang is not the beginning of everything. It goes to describe only the beginning of some phase of the universe cycle.

We notice, the dynamic universe is stable with many periodic motions of its constituents (celestial bodies). The earth where we live has a periodic rotation about its own axis which makes day and night during every rotation period. One may say a day comes to existence by birth of the sun in the morning and the day disappears by the death of the sun in the evening. At the death of a day night takes the birth when people sleep. The day period and night period of a day cycle have same duration. At the death of night, the day takes a rebirth. However, this is not the fact. We know it well, the sun neither dies in the evening nor takes a rebirth in next morning, it exists all times and at night the sun can be seen from other side of the earth. Thus, the cyclic birth and death of the universe as told in Vedas may be a simple correlation of some long-range periodicity of cyclic conjunction of planets or a definite time period where the ratio of revolution of planets becomes a ratio of integer numbers. 

Any orbital body when makes one revolution around its nucleus body such as the revolution of the earth around the sun or the revolution of sun around the nucleus of milky-way galaxy, the orbital body always gains one rotation per revolution with reference to distant celestial objects. This gained epicycle rotation has a different significance as compared to normal rotation of orbital body with reference to its nucleus body. During the epicycle rotation the orbital body, say the earth, takes an excursion in its orbital path which changes the proximal distances of neighboring stars and also changes the orientation of stars with respect to earth-sun system besides the changes in orientation of other planets and satellites occurring due to normal rotation. The radiation exchange between the earth and its background celestial bodies changes with different instantaneous position of background celestial bodies. Therefore, living on earth, one would experience different periodic variations in exchange radiations correlating with the periodic position of neighbouring celestial bodies relative to the earth. If some phase of a long-range cosmic period produces unfavourable cosmic radiation for existence of life on earth then life on earth would perish and a favourable radiation at some other instant in periodic motion would give birth to new life on earth. This is how, Hindu literature, including Vedas and the Puranas, carries the belief that time is divided into different yugas in a cyclic manner. The term yuga is derived from yoga and yoga from samyoga or conjunction of heavenly bodies. Therefore, the origin for every unit of yuga relates to specific conjunction of celestial bodies in the sky. The celestial bodies in the proximity of the earth, such as the sun, moon, planets and star-constellations go to form different yugas which are more than a year. For example, the conjunction of the sun and moon at the asterism of Dhanistha in the zodiac sign Makara (Capricorn) in the month of Magha on new moon day repeats in every 5 years forming 5 years yuga. Vedanga Jyotisa has given special names to these five years as Samvatsara, Parivatsasra, Idavatssra, Anuvatsara and Idvatvatsara. The planet Jupiter takes 12 years to go around the sun and forms the Brihaspati yuga of 12 years cycle. The conjunction of the sun and moon at Dhanistha constellation while Jupiter at makara (Capricorn) repeats after 60 years thus forming the basis of 60 years yuga. The rare occasion of Sun, Moon and Brihaspati meeting at Dhanistha repeats at interval of 865 million years. If this is considered as one day (ahoratra) in some scale then the time span of only the day time would be 432.5 million years. This conjunction occurs 5 times in a kalpa or 10 times in 2 kalpas which is one ahoratra (day + night) of Brahma. There may be other correlations of conjunctions of planets linking maha yugas. Again, when the sun goes around the nucleus of milkywaygalaxy, then many long period yugas are formed with respect to star constellations and the galactic constellations which are probably not explored.  

From the above discussion it is clear that the yugas and maha-yugas have scientific basis and it is not purely philosophical. Thus, Vedic science has a strong scientific basis but it uses the philosophical language to describe Vedic science. Some yugo like all 7 planets at the asterism of Dhanistha in the zodiac sign Makara along with the node Rahu may produce conditions for life creation and that with node Ketu may create conditions for destruction of life or produce conditions for drastic changes in features and characteristic properties of living beings. The different observed cyclic periods obtained from planetary conjunction or otherwise, are simply correlations of events in the universe and none of these periodic cycles can answer to the cyclic period of creation and destruction of the physical universe. The cycle of creation and destruction of physical universe cannot be speculated from the periodic cycles of celestial bodies (planets and stars). The finding of modern science that the age of the universe is 13.5 billion years is perhaps not correct as it simply relates to cyclic period of some conjunction of planets at specific house of the zodiac only. The Big Bang theory was proposed primarily to justify the observed large-scale homogeneous structure of universe having equally spaced galaxies and also the uniform background radiation from all directions. According to Big Bang Theory there should not be any large-scale clusters of galaxies or great voids in space. This Grand Theory is now facing problem after the discovery of variations in the large-scale structure of the universe with grouping of galaxies showing non-homogeneity in large-scale structures and pockets of very large voids. The strength and weakness of Big Bang Theory is discussed below.

Big Bang Theory

Big Bang theory in modern science presupposes that some 10 to 20 billion years ago, all of the matter and energy of the universe was compressed into a cosmic egg, or plasma ball, consisting of sub-atomic particles and radiation. Compression of subatomic particles and radiation requires huge energy as the process is never self-propagating following the normal laws of nature. Perhaps it is not proper to say – the laws of nature were not born then. Hence it is not known as to how such cosmic egg formed? And from where it came? The proponent of big bang theory did not analyse the feasibility of the formation of cosmic egg and the dynamics that brought it to the location of explosion. They simply accepted that the cosmic egg was just there. And again, equally inexplicable – why the cosmic egg exploded? What was the condition that triggered the explosion? However, the explosion of cosmic egg made the matter and radiation to expand. The expansion made the system to cool sufficiently for elements to form. Protons and electrons combined to form hydrogen atom. Neutrons were subsequently captured to form helium of atomic weight four. All other elements were formed at later stage. It is supposed – the gas expanded radially in all directions until they were so highly dispersed that an extremely low vacuum and low temperature existed but no oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, carbon, sulphur or other elements existed. The universe consisted essentially of hydrogen gas. It is then told, somehow, the molecules of gas that were racing out at an enormous speed in a radial direction began to collapse on themselves in local areas by gravitational attraction. The molecules within a space of about six trillion miles diameter collapsed to form each star. Then about hundred billion stars somehow collected to form each of the galaxies and it was estimated 100 billion galaxies to have formed in the universe. Our solar system formed about five billion years ago from a cloud of dust and gas as remnant of explosion of previously existing stars. No satisfactory theory exists to explain any of these described events. The sequence of events discussed above apparently appears as a fiction story. However, cosmologists stand firm in their conviction that all of these presupposed events would eventually yield to credible explanations. Even with all these assumptions the Grand Big Bang theory fails to justify the new cosmological observations, thus credibility of the theory is lost.

Based on the Big Bang theory, cosmologists predicted that the distribution of matter throughout the universe would be homogeneous. Hence, the distribution of galaxies in the universe would be essentially uniform. No matter in which direction one looks, one would see the same number of galaxies. There would be no large-scale clusters of galaxies or great voids in space. Early observation showed large scale homogeneity with uniformly equal spacing of galaxies which gave a trump card to Big Bang theory. Relatively recent finding has now revealed the existence of massive super clusters of galaxies and vast voids in space. Thus, the universe is different from that predicted by Big Bang Theory. We may see now how the footing of Big Bang theory changes with time. The article ‘The Big Bang Theory Collapses’ by Duane Gish [11], is the main reference for describing the state of the art of Big Bang Theory.

In 1986, R. Brent Tully of the University of Hawaii, showed that there were ribbons of super clusters of galaxies 300 million light-years long and 100 million light-years thick, stretching out about a billion light-years, and separated by voids about 300 million light-years across [1]. Such large-scale structure to form by considering Big Bang concept would require 80 billion years whereas the present age of universe is supposed to be somewhere between 10-20 billion years. The trump card of Big Bang theory now becomes weak. 

In November 1989, Margaret Geller and John Huchra, of the Harvard-Smithsonian Centre for Astrophysics, announced their sky-map showing new structural forms in the universe which they termed “Great Wall” (a huge sheet of galaxies 200 million light years across and 700 million light years long [2]. Again, a team of American, British, and Hungarian astronomers discovered even larger structures [3]. They found galaxies clustered into thin bands spaced about 600 million light years apart. This huge shell and void pattern to form would have required nearly 150 billion years following Big Bang cosmology. The Big Bang trump card gets further weakened. 

In January 3, 1991 Will Saunders and nine fellow astronomers published the results of their all-sky redshift survey of galaxies detected by the Infrared Astronomical Satellite. This survey revealed the existence of a far-greater numbers of massive super-clusters of galaxies than can be accounted for by Big Bang cosmologies [4]. The trump card got further weakened as the observed placement of galaxies are now different. How can one accept the Big Bang Theory with no homogeneity in large scale structure?  

Cold Dark Matter (CDM) Theory

Cosmologists added new hypotheses to explain the reasons for failure of Big Bang Theory. One such hypothesis is the introduction of Cold Dark Matter (CDM) theory. The dark matter concept was first introduced to explain the slow orbital motion of the outer stars in the galaxy thereby protecting the law of universal gravity. This new concept of dark matter was found successful for the orbital motion of stars in a galaxy. There is no guarantee that the dark matter physics would stand the test of time. This time again to protect the Big Bang Theory, cosmologists introduced the new cold-dark-matter (CDM) theory. According to this theory, 90-99% of matter in the universe cannot be detected. If CDM really exists then it would produce sufficient gravitational pull to create large clusters of galaxies. The structures discovered during the past few years, are so massive that their formation cannot be explained even by the new CDM concept. David Lindley writes “Cold Dark Matter Makes an Exit.” [12] Likewise, Caltech cosmologist S. George Djorgovski, considering the astronomical observations states ‘the demise of the notion of the existence of cold dark matter is inevitable’ [5]. The CDM concept cannot explain the formation of giant super-clusters of quasars [6]. The trump card again lost its support that it gained through CDM concept. It looks the concept of dark matter or CDM is not a reality of nature. Because normal matter composed of mass and space has scope to provide a complete answer to all-natural phenomena. Thus, there is no need of introducing concepts like dark matter or cold dark matter. Any un-natural hypothesis deviates science from reality of nature.  

Background radiation 

Big Bang theory predicts a background radiation equivalent to few degrees of Kelvin. In 1965, Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson, radio engineers at Bell Telephone Laboratories in New Jersey, discovered microwave background radiation of 2.7 K. This time the trump card of Big Bang Theory was revitalized and the evolutionary cosmologists were absolutely delighted. This discovery was considered the proof of the Big Bang Theory, and Penzias and Wilson were duly awarded Nobel Prizes. Nobody knew this saver of Big Bang Theory will become the killer of the theory one day. The background radiation turned out to be the additional evidence against the Big Bang theory rather than its proof. Big Bang theory predicts large scale homogeneous universe resulting perfectly smooth background radiation. When perfectly smooth background radiation was observed, the Big Bang theory took almost a rebirth for having got its proof. 

The universe is no more homogeneous as it has been observed to have lumpy super-clusters of galaxies and great voids. Thus, the expected background radiation would not be smooth. It would be more intense in some direction and less intense in some other direction. However, all measurements showed perfectly smooth background radiation. Even the Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE) launched to an orbit did not show any non-homogeneity in the background radiation [7], ultimately leaving the cause of background radiation to be something else not known yet. Eventually the Big Bang theory has lost its charm and the cosmologists are looking forward for a fresh new look to alternative weak discarded theories. Theories based on plasma processes and steady-state theory came to active state from their coma state. Who knows, if any of these theories or an abruptly new theory would lead us to a clear understanding on the birth of the universe. 

That apart, the Big Bang is not the beginning of everything, [3] but is just the starting point of the present phase of a cycle preceded by an infinite number of universes and to be followed by another infinite number of universes [4]. The periodic dynamics of a system also produces many periodic changes in its sub-systems. Thus, the sub-periods of sub systems have to have a correlation with the period of main system. Hence the periodic dynamics within the systems of the universe ought to have a link with the periodic cycle of the universe as a whole. Thus, there is no wonder if the cyclic period of the universe estimated by any kind of study matches with the other. The preconditions of Big Bang event are only assumptions and no plausible theory supplements the assumptions. If the explosion of cosmic egg in Big Bang theory, is considered as the starting point of one cycle of universe formation then the preconditions of the event (Big Bang) should match with the end conditions of the previous cycle. Because we know ‘the end of an event gives rise to beginning of another event for continuity of events. Thus, Big Bang is not the beginning of everything.

Our day-to-day understanding the events of nature is not affected whether we understand or do not understand as to how the universe was formed. However, a greater understanding of universe from its birth would help in developing a unified understanding of nature (similarity of structure and dynamics in all domains of nature). This would further help in finding the cause of the fundamental forces of nature. Thus, we must continue our sincere effort to understand the universe and its dynamics in a natural manner without too many assumptions as in case of Big Bang theory. The Big Bang theory was accepted as many cosmologists supported the theory. In accepting a new theory, it is not proper to consider factors such as who makes the proposition of a new theory to replace the existing theory? Despite large number of support of cosmologists, the Big Bang theory may go wrong if a few cosmologists find fault in it. Because, the acceptance of a fact or theory in science has to be decided by its merit of the theory. 

The big Bang theory presupposes that the contents of the universe were present in the cosmic egg in different form. Obviously, the contents were compressed to extra ordinary density to form the cosmic egg. Somehow it took a preferred position and from there the cosmic egg exploded. Matter/energy was not created in the Big Bang. External energy was not required to promote the expansion of the universe as the contents were in extra ordinary high pressure and temperature. Thus, the expansion is a self-propagating process. Then what is the end state of universe or death of the universe? Does the universe take a rebirth after death?

Redshift may not be due to expansion of universe

Hubble’s law is considered the first observational basis for expansion of the universe and gives evidence for the Big Bang model. The motion of astronomical objects (galaxies) due solely to this expansion is known as the Hubble flow. Edwin Powell Hubble is generally regarded as one of the most important observational cosmologists of the 20th century. Hubble showed that the recessional velocity of a galaxy increases with its distance from the earth, known as “Hubble’s law”. Thus, Hubble’s Law concludes for expanding universe. Though the law is widely known as Hubble’s Law, it was first derived from the general relativity equation by Georges Lemaitre and made an estimate of the rate of expansion. Hubble confirmed the recession velocity from redshifts and determined accurate result of the constant. The red shifts were earlier measured and related to velocity by Vesto Slipher.

The concept of geocentric universe came up first and was confirmed by many astronomers but the reality is something else as we know it. Here the recession of the universe, in a way, is geocentric as the Hubble’s Law measures the distance from the location of the earth. Earth is certainly not the centre of the universe- it is only the centre of terrestrial system (earth-moon system). The sun is the centre of solar system, the black hole as nucleus of Milky way galaxy is the centre of the galaxy. A system in larger domain containing galaxies has a different centre and the universe containing such systems has certainly a different centre. Therefore, the earth is not the centre of the universe and there is no reason why it should be? The Hubble’s law that indirectly considers the location of earth as the centre of universe for the purpose of the expansion of the universe is not a right supposition even though the red-shift correlation yields result. Thus, the earth-based measurement of red-shift of light coming from galaxies is not a conclusive proof of expanding universe as the distances are not taken from the centre of the universe. 

Many unnatural assumptions are made in Big Bang Theory only to justify the observed red-shift. It may so happen that the cause of observed red-shift correlating the distance from the earth is due to some other universal phenomenon of nature, which we do not know yet. There could many apparent forms of explanation of an event but the reality is only one. How to know which is that real one? One of the important criteria of a truth is that it should not have contradiction with any other realities (truths) that we know with confidence. If some of the known realities are not real (hypothetical) then a real thing may appear unreal on the basis of defective hypotheses. This has happened in many of the established laws of nature due to improper understanding of physical space and the lack of understanding to universal phenomenon of mass-space interactions. The cause of all laws in all domains being a derivative of mass-space interaction, different constants of proportionality of parameters in different correlating laws also bears correlation with the basic universal constant pertaining to the instinct of mass and space interaction. 

New Light Tired Theory

In an expanding universe one would expect the average temperature of the universe has to fall as it expands. In contrast to this phenomenon the Doppler parameters of the Hydrogen clouds in Quasar spectra shows increase in temperature. How can this happen? Therefore, a new model for red-shift is needed to explain red-shifts in a static universe. One such model postulates that light from distant galaxies are absorbed and reemitted by electrons in the plasma of intergalactic space. In each interaction the electron recoils and energy are lost to the recoiling electron (New Tired Light theory). The reemitted photon has less energy with reduced frequency and increased wavelength and hence red-shifted. The observed Hubble relationship may now be expressed – ‘light photons from a galaxy twice as far away, make twice as many interactions with the electrons in the plasma of inter galactic (IG) space, thus lose twice as much energy in transit and undergo twice the red-shift.’ A relationship between red-shift and distance is found and, using published values of collision cross-sections and number density of electrons in IG space, a value for the Hubble constant has been derived and the same is in good agreement with measured values. The distant Ia-supernova takes longer for rise and fall of multicoloured light curves attributing the cause to time dilation which is not the direct result but a biased interpretation of expansion concept.

Steady state model of Universe

The Steady State model adopted the “Perfect Cosmological Principle”, and assumed that the universe was the same at all times in respect of homogeneity (the same in all places) and isotropy (the same in all directions). The universe is observed to be expanding, therefore to maintain the density, matter must be continuously created. Hence, the steady state concept is not acceptable.

Proposed new theory of cyclic universe from mass-space interactions

According to the new concept proposed by this author, all existences in the universe are mass-space systems. Matter at any stage is a mass-space integral system and any space pocket of the universe in any domain contains space matter particles [8]. At present the universe is non-homogeneous in mass-space distribution. We notice mass rich matter (any matter with dense mass) emits mass rich particles to surrounding space structure and receives space rich particles from the space structure where mass merges in space and space infuses into mass. The present trend of mass and space flow reveals the interactions of mass and space as mass-mass repulsion, mass-space attraction and space–space repulsion. The present basic interactions of mass and space fully satisfies the dynamics of the constituents of the universe in different domains of nature [9]. If the dynamics of universe continues to have the flow of mass into the space and flow of space into the mass then it would result in complete homogenization of mass and space in finer and finer scales where the existence of matter and space cannot be identified. At this stage when the merger of mass and space is complete, the universe comes to stand still and the mass-space interactions become defunct. One may say here, the universe without any activity is dead. 

We find every natural event in this universe occurs in cyclic manner therefore we can safely make one assumption that the universe formation and destruction is also cyclic in nature with unlimited births and deaths of the universe. The pre-conditions of birth of the universe have to be provided by the end conditions (conditions after death) of the universe. At the death of the universe mass and space are found in fused state and the pre-conditions of birth of universe requires mass and space to have segregated and compacted separately to take the birth of universe from a Big Bang of mass and space in compact form. There are two ways of arriving at the precondition for birth of the universe. 1) Under some favourable condition, quantum transformation of fused mass-space is isolated to separate balls of mass and space. 2) Mass and space in fused state change their interaction norms so that the universe again become dynamic causing segregation of mass and space, thus the new mass-space interactions become mass-mass attraction, mass-space repulsion and space-space attraction. Therefore, the universe cycle comprises two phases, one leading to mass-space homogenization and the other leading to complete segregation. In a different language it may be said, the universe oscillates between two points i.e. mass-space union and segregation by changing the mass-space interaction norms.   

This contraction phase of the universe may be assumed to have same length of time as that of the expansion-phase. At the end of contraction phase two compact balls, one of mass and the other of space are formed. Thereafter the balls of mass and space move away from one another due to mass-space repulsion. The mass and space of the universe then reverses their basic norm of interactions for the sustenance of the universe. The new norm is same as that prevailed in the expanding phase of the universe. No sooner the mass and space change their norm of interaction, the isolated balls of mass and space accelerate towards each other and ultimately make a head on collision causing fragmentation of mass & space thereby helping formation of different matter (mass-space integral structure) in different domains. Space is invisible and unperceivable hence the ball of mass was visualized as the cosmic egg. The initial non-steady state of mass-space dynamics continues for quite long time thereafter a steady state of mass-space dynamics appears with expansion of universe at slow rate that occurs due to slow natural decay (aging) of matters through radiation exchange which maintains the dynamics of the universe. The mass/energy decay of matter (mass-space integral systems) in different domains goes to maintain local dynamics in different scales with having their contribution to overall dynamics of the universe. In this new hypothesis the mass and space contents of the universe are not destroyed at any time. The mass-space universe oscillates between two nodes of union and segregation of mass and space of the universe. The phase of expansion and the phase of contraction of the universe together form one cycle of the universe. This cycle repeats infinitely without a beginning or end. This new concept has similarity with the Vedic concept. The time scale of universe cycle is infinitely large.

The fractioned masses in Big Bang capture space from the surrounding and forms extra-nuclear space structure due to mass-space interaction. Thereafter the kinetics of segregation of mass is restrained by high pressure space-structure surrounding the dense matter and the expansion of space is hindered by the attraction from dense masses (celestial bodies). The mass-space dynamics of the universe gradually slows down and reaches a steady state. In the steady state, the universe also expands by radiation of mass rich radiation particles, which carries space in its extra-nuclear structure formed due to mass-space attraction. The mass of celestial bodies gradually decreases due to radiation. Therefore, the attraction to surrounding space to maintain the integral mass-space structure, slowly weaken, thereby allowing the space of the universe to expand due to space-space repulsion. Thus, we cannot say Big Bang was not there; universe is not expanding; steady state of universe is wrong; the universe formation is cyclic in nature etc. If we keep our window open in all directions and give equal importance to all schools of thought, a unified understanding of birth and death of universe becomes feasible. Unless the defective understandings are rectified they would hinder in accepting new theories on reality of nature including the new model of universe. For example, the solar radiation that we know is the radiation from the sun is radial outwardly from the sun. We do not yet know the inward radiation from the background space medium reaching the sun in radiation exchange process. The reality is that all radiation particles are mass space integral systems like the mass-space structure of solar system. Every nucleus in all domains has a core and crust. The core has a mass rich structure and the crust has a space rich structure. The core to crust volume-ratio of any particle gives the state property of the particle. The state of a particle is revealed by its temperature (energy level) with respect to some reference zero. In solar system the mass rich particles move outwardly whereas the space rich particles move inwardly. This inward radiation coming from interstellar space towards the sun is captured by the extra-nuclear space structure of the earth and becomes the inward radiation for the terrestrial system. The earth also has outward radiation. Thus, the outward and inward radiation from and to the earth has radial direction and intensity remains nearly the same in all direction. This reality of inward radiation (background radiation) is misinterpreted as the residual effect of Big-Bang explosion. As the universe expanded, it cooled, leaving behind a faint radiation that is now observed as the cosmic microwave background [10].

Neither the concept of expanding universe following the Big Bang nor the concept of static universe with the ‘New Tired Light theory’ does not appear to have fully explained the state of the universe. Thus, one has to have a clear understanding of light particles in respect of its mass-space structure and energy level to understand the time dependent decay of energy level (red-shift). We are still in wave particle confusion even with the assigned compromising property of photon as a particle associated with a wave property. It is first required to remove duality from theory of light and bring clarity of energy & energy level micro domain particles. A photon particle in the new concept has a centrally organized structure having nucleus and extra-nuclear-space structure comprising mass and space. The nucleus undergoes a slow gradual natural decay like the decay of celestial body. Thereafter it would be possible to understand as to how the energy level of photon changes with time dependent decay of its mass-space structure. Light from distant galaxies takes longer time in travel longer distance, hence more decay of photon takes place in longer travel time which results lowering of energy level of photon. In the language of wave theory of light, the energy level of light decreases with decrease in frequency or increase in wave length. The process of decay is universal hence decay is present in matters of all domains and the decay mechanism is similar in all domains of the universe. The events in any domain are basically caused due to mass-space interaction, which may be described in different domain-based language for easier understanding. The decay of photons with time of travel can be conceptualised from the decay of celestial bodies in macro domain for example the decay of the sun. 

Conclusion

Indian Vedic science describes the birth and death of the universe in cyclic manner. Many events of the universe are cyclic therefore the Vedic description appears rational for uniformity of nature. At present Big Bang Theory has greater acceptance. However too many assumptions made in promoting Big Bang theory. The observed large-scale homogeneous universe, nature of background radiation and the nature of redshift of lights from galaxies help to establish the Big Bang Theory. On the contrary, the universe is now found to be non-homogeneous with observed large clusters of galaxies and large voids. Even the new proposed cold dark matter (CDM) theory fails to justify the very large clusters and voids. The uniform background radiation no more remains valid for the large scale non-homogeneous distribution of galaxy. There is no valid theory as to how the cosmic egg formed and how it came to the vicinity of the earth where it exploded. We also do not know the triggering mechanism of the explosion of the cosmic egg. To understand the birth and death of universe we need to understand the most fundamental universal law of nature without having any limitation. Thus, it is necessary to discover the most fundamental universal law which give rise to different domain-based laws of nature. The author has discovered the basic universal norm of the existing phase of the universe as mass-space attraction, mass-mass repulsion and space-space repulsion. Using this universal law, the state of universe at the beginning and at end of a cycle is predictable.  The present phase of the universe has a trend for decay of matter (mass-space system) leading to complete homogenization of mass and space. Thus, it requires another phase of the universe where the mass and space of the universe would be segregated. Therefore, this phase requires opposite sets of mass-space interactions. The reversal of mass-space interaction gives opportunity to know the birth and death of universe in cyclic manner. The new mass-space interaction is the cause of gravity, charge interaction and hopefully other fundamental force interactions. Proper understanding of the basic mass-space interaction helps one to understand the cause of the fundamental forces. Thus, the fundamental forces are unified at the level of their cause and there is scope of a universal theory for all domains of nature. The new basic mass-space interaction leads towards revival of faith on consistency and uniformity of nature. 

This article is a part of the original work published in the book “Vedic Science Enriches Modern Science”, Volume-4 of the series “Dynamics of universe; interplay of matter, space and charge”, 2018 by the same author.

References 

1. R. B. Tully, Astrophysics Journal 303:25-38 (1986).
2. M. J. Geller and J. P. Huchra, Science 246:897-903 (1990).
3. E. G. Lerner, Aerospace America, March 1990, pp. 38-43.
4. Will Saunders, et al, Nature 349:32-38 (1991).
5. T. H. Maugh, II, Los Angeles Times, San Diego Edition, January 5, 1991, p. A29.
6. R. Cowen, Science News 139:52 (1991).
7. E. G. Lerner, Aerospace America, March 1990, p. 41.
8. https://philosophyofnature.org.in/basic-constituents-of-universe-and-their-interactions.
9. https://philosophyofnature.org.in/different-domains-of-nature.
10. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/cosmic-microwave-background-radiation.
11. https://www.icr.org/article/big-bang-theory-collapses.
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13. Birth and Death of Physical Universe, “volume-four– Vedic Science Enriches Modern Science” of the series Dynamics of Universe- interplay of Matter, Space and Charge, Published by Gyanajuga Publication, 2018.

Abstract

The earth and its atmosphere (including the ionospheric shells) are now found to be electrically charged. The crust of the earth is negatively charged with respect to the core and the atmosphere. Recently the sun also is found to be positively charged with respect to the earth. The natural charge state of earth and the sun provides the exact analysis of the features of ionosphere of the earth and the nature of geomagnetism which are discussed in separate articles in this issue of the journal. The existing understanding of the aurora is complex and has many limitations. It is natural to think that the ionosphere, geomagnetism and aurora in earth’s atmosphere have a common cause linking with the charge polarized structure of the earth. The ionospheric shell, subshells have a definite pattern of electric charge potential caused due to charge polarization. The potential difference between negatively charged shell and the adjasent positively charged shells due to polarization is not a measure to cause charge flow across shells because the standing potentials are caused by charge polarization. If somehow the potential of any shell or subshell goes up or down from the equilibrium polarized potential then the shell tends to exchange charge with neighboring shells to attain the equilibrium polarized potential. Solar flares cause changes in solar spectra and composition of solar wind that produce changes the polarized potential structure of ionospheric shells. The nonpolarized component of potential difference produce electromotive force for the flow of electric charge across the ionospheric shells and sub-shells. The dielectric constant of the intervening medium of the shells being high very weak current is discharged across the shells. However, the charge flow is enhanced when assisted by geomagnetic field lines (magnetic field aligned current). The geomagnetic field lines cross the ionospheric charge shells between 600 to 850 latitudes. The occurrence of aurore are confined to these latitudes which conforms the new mechanism of formation of aurora. The new mechanism explains also other features of aurore in a clear conceptual manner and the same is discussed in the paper.

key words: aurora, auroral oval, auroral potential, auroral generator, aurora borealis, aurora Australis.

Introduction

Formation of a great luminous oval in the upper polar atmosphere is known as aurora. When it forms around the North Pole it is called aurora borealis and its counterpart around the South Pole is named as aurora Australis. The auroral oval centres on geomagnetic poles. The oval has two distinct parts: one facing the equator and the other facing the poles. The pole-ward part consists of curtain like forms of luminosity while the equator-ward part is wide with diffused glow. The complete view of the auroral oval can be obtained from a satellite while looking down the earth from a position above the polar region. One such view is shown in Fig.1. The average size of an auroral oval is about 4000 km. Though the oval always centers on each geomagnetic pole, it does not exactly confirm to any geomagnetic   latitude in a strict sense. The mid-day part of the auroral oval is located at 76^o of the geomagnetic latitude while that corresponding to the mid- night part is 67^o. At times the oval can contract poleward or equatorward within the rough limits of 82^o to 70^o in the mid-day part and 72^o to 55^o in the mid-night part.

In general, the auroral form has a discrete curtain like shape with its bottom edge approximately in the range of 100-110 km height while the upper edge is more flexible between 400 to 1000 km and even more. The auroral curtain has several folds ranging from kilometres to hundreds of kilometres in scale. The aurora with small scale folds give rise to the appearance of striations which is called a “ray structure” and that with large scale folds is termed as horseshoe or drapery. The equator ward of the curtain like aurora extends to low latitude giving wide coverage of the sky with having faint, diffuse and Milky Way like glow. This diffuse glow tends to develop east-west structures in the morning part of the sky. Often these structures break up into patches like the cumulus cloud and drift eastward with a speed of 300 m/sec.

Abstract

Extensive data on the nature of geomagnetism and different methods of analysis is available today. Despite all these, the origin of earth’s magnetic field is not very clear. Various hypotheses made to explain geomagnetism appear unrealistic and they have many limitations. This article makes a new approach to understand the cause of geomagnetism from the equivalent ring current in the earth’s crust and ionosphere. The earth’s crust is negatively charged and it is electrically conductive due to presence of free electrons. The rotation of earth carrying negative charge in the crust develop an equivalent ionic current that induces geomagnetism. This geomagnetic field is further modified by solar-terrestrial interaction. Recently the positive charge state of the sun has been reported. The positive charge of sun attracts the free electrons in negatively charged shells of the earth’s crust and ionosphere thereby polarizes the free electron structure. The charge polarized structures in earth’s crust and ionosphere remain fixed with respect to the sun even though the earth rotates about its axis. The rotating earth tries to carry the free electrons along with the crust but the charge polarized structure being fixed with respect to the sun, the free electrons do not move. Hence the free electrons make a relative motion with respect to the earth. This produces an equivalent electronic ring current in the crust of the earth as well as in the ionosphere which modifies the geomagnetism. This new analysis justifies the exact nature of geomagnetism and its variations. It also explains why the fossil magnets exhibit opposite polarity at different depths without the consideration of reversal of polarity. 

Key words: geomagnetism, earth’s magnetism, geomagnetic field, origin of geomagnetism.

Introduction 

The earth’s magnetic field is known from a quite long time. However, during the last century, large volumes of measurement data have been reported from various magnetic observations. These data are further supplemented with good amount of global coverage with the help of satellites. Despite the availability of huge data and modern method of analysis, the origin of earth’s magnetic field remains as one of the unsolved problems [1].

Before 1600 AD William Gilbert investigated the variations of magnetic force over the surface of a spherically cut magnetized mineral, lodestone, and concluded that the earth behaved, as if, it is a uniformly magnetized sphere. He further supposed that the cause of magnetism lies within the earth itself. In the year 1939 Gauss derived mathematically the earth’s magnetic field through spherical harmonic analysis and showed it to be as that of a uniformly magnetized sphere which implies a dipole magnet at the centre of the earth. It may be noted here that the spherical analysis is nothing more than a mathematical analysis to represent the field by means of a hypothetical source at the center. It is necessary to understand the nature of geomagnetism before proceeding to comment on the origin of the same. The magnetic axis has an offset inclination with the geographic axis. The Earth’s geographic axis and magnetic axis are not coplanar. The magnetic axis is inclined at an angle of about 11.3 degrees with the geographic axis [2]. Though the earth’s magnetic field always correspond to a dipole magnet, it varies spatially responding to different time of the day, season etc… The time dependent changes are of two type’s viz. short-term transient variations and the long-term secular variations due to reason associating the main field. Daily magnetic records show, in some days, the field exhibits smooth and regular variations while in other days it is disturbed with irregular fluctuation. Obviously, these transient variations are due to solar-terrestrial relationship. In general, both day-to-day changes of intensity in disturbed days and those in the magnetically quiet days are of similar pattern over a wide area. Sudden magnetic storm occurs worldwide and happens almost at the same time within a margin of half minute. The magnetic disturbance in the auroral zone is higher than those at low latitudes. Occasionally the values exceed 5000gauss. Besides the large-scale disturbances, the abrupt impulsive changes with variations lasting from 0.1 sec to 10 min. also occur which are known as magnetic micro pulsation [3]. 

Secular variations on long term scale are noticed from the successive mean values of the magnetic element from any particular station. The secular variations have different values from place to place which may be anomalously large or small. It is also noticed that the dipole moment of the earth’s field is in decreasing trend with 6% drop during the last century [3]. It is interesting to note here that the decrease of dipole moment, however, has little effect on the inclination of dipole axis. Geological studies of magnetic behaviour of underground rocks and minerals reveal that geomagnetism has undergone reversal of polarity many times in the past. The above prior information is useful in finding the origin of geomagnetism as the new model has to account for the above observed features of geomagnetism. 

Progressive Change of Concept on the Origin of Geomagnetism 

Different hypotheses have made impact at different times to account for the nature of geomagnetism but none could stand the test of time as they have been proven inadequate and unrealistic.

First Hypothesis:

The first assumption was that a permanent magnet exists in the earth. This assumption does not stand in the light of high temperature inside the earth. The temperature gradient in the crust is approximately 30 K/kilometre. Thus, at a depth of 25 km, the temperature is in the order of Currie point of iron [4]. Therefore, at greater depths, the Ferro-magnetic substances would have lost their permanent magnetism. Hence, to account for the earth’s magnetic moment, an average intensity of permanent magnetisation in the earth’s crust of about 6gauss is necessary. For most rocks the intensity is less than 10-2 gauss [4]. Therefore, the permanent magnetism concept is a failure. It also fails to account for other features of earth’s magnetic field such as the close proximity of the magnetic and the geographic poles, the secular variations and the reversal of polarity.

Second Hypothesis:

When the permanent magnetism concept failed, it was thought that a possible source seemed to be some form of electromagnetic induction caused by electric current flowing in the earth’s electrically conducting fluid core. The palaeomagnetic measurements have shown that the earth’s main field has existed for 3500 million years [5] and that its strength has never differed significantly from its present value. However, in a bounded electrically conducting body, any system of current would decay and this value for the earth is 10,000 yrs. Thus, the geomagnetic field cannot be a relic of the past [5]. Therefore, a mechanism must be found for generating and maintaining electric currents to sustain the magnetic field.

Third Hypothesis:

It was then thought that the source of electromotive force needed to maintain the currents is the motion of core material that behaves like a dynamo. The argument put forward here is that the core is a good conductor of electricity and it is a fluid that can permit mechanical motion causing a flow of current. The above interaction could generate a self-sustained magnetic field. It is further said that gravitational and heat energy sources are available at the core of the earth for running the dynamo. Thus, everything is available except the critical problem how to show the inductive reaction to an initial field [7]. A real man-made dynamo is much more than that discussed above. A man-made dynamo is exceedingly non-homogeneous containing rotor, stator, wire with typical winding, bearings, insulation etc. whereas the fluid core is essentially homogeneous and isotropic. It must be expected that any such dynamo would be short circuited [6]. The intricacy of the problem can be well realised by an electrical engineer as to how difficult it is to assume the operation of a dynamo in the earth’s core. 

A New Concept on Origin of Geomagnetism

Various measurements have established the negative charge of the crust of the earth. It is further noticed that the atmosphere of the earth is also electrically charged with alternate positive and negative polarity [7]. Thus, the earth can very well be considered as a negatively charged celestial body. Now, if an orbital body, say the earth, in the solar system is negatively charged like the orbital electrons in atomic system, then, there is every possibility that the nucleus of solar system (the sun) be positively charged in the light of the positively charged atomic nucleus. This author has shown elsewhere [] how the sun is positively charged. The charge aspect of celestial body has the merit of explaining many features of the earth and its atmosphere including geomagnetism with distinct clarity. 

Any amount of positive charge earthed (discharged into the crust of the earth) does not change the negative charge state of the ground. Hence, the earth carries huge negative charge in its crust. The earth carrying negative charge in its crust rotates from west to east (anticlockwise- viewed from north pole end). The negative charge (negative ions and attached free electrons) present in the crust of the earth also rotate from west to east along with the crust. The rotation of the earth makes rotation of negative ions and attached free electrons about the axis of the earth. This produces an equivalent ring current from east to west (Fig.1). Referring to figure-1, the symbol ʘ indicates direction of current towards the observer and the symbol   indicates the direction of current away from the observer. The negatively charged earth with rotation about its own axis is equivalent to a solenoid (dipole electro magnet). For an equivalent solenoid carrying east-west current, the induced electro-magnetic field exactly matches with the nature of geomagnetism i.e., the magnetic north pole being located near the geographic South Pole and the magnetic South Pole located near the geographic North Pole. There is a definite reason why the magnetic poles do not exactly coincide with the geographic poles. This happens due to non-uniform equivalent-current density along the crust of the earth. The negative charge density of the crust is a function of crust composition, sea-land distribution etc. The sea water having a better electrical conductivity carry much more negative charges than the dry land. The magnitude of equivalent current in the crust at any location is directly proportional to the negative charge density at that location. The unsymmetrical distribution of sea water and land mass in the crust forms a solenoid with varying equivalent currents in its path that gives rise to a dipole magnet with its magnetic axis making an offset angle of 11.3 degree with the geographic axis (Fig.2). The functioning of a hypothetical dynamo operating at the core of the earth as envisioned in present science is not required to understand the cause of geomagnetism. The geomagnetic field is further modified by other modes of equivalent current systems in the crust and ionospheres [8].

Abstract

The ionosphere is an electrified part of the Earth’s atmosphere, which is located around 50km-600km from the Earth’s surface. The ionosphere is composed of electrically charged particles that are ionized by a process called photoionization. The photoionization is produced mainly by solar radiation. The ionosphere is divided into three regions or layers: D- layer (48 km to 90 km), E-layer (90 km to 150 km) and F-layer (150 km to more than 500 km).

Many of the ionospheric features are not well understood. For example, the formation of a peak electron density around mid-night is not in coherence with the ionospheric theory that considers production of ions by photo ionization, loss of electrons by recombination and mobility of charge particles. Again, the newly identified alternately charged ionospheres cannot possibly be explained by the existing ionospheric theory. Further the correlation of distances of charge shells is beyond the scope of analysis by the present theory. This article proposes a new theory for explaining the ionospheric structure and feature including the alternate charge polarity of ionospheric shells considering charge polarization. It may be seen from this article that the new concept has a better stand in explaining many aspects of ionosphere and the mechanism is extendable to other planets. Distant planets having prominent ionospheric shells in spite of low-intensity solar radiation can be understood through the new proposed mechanism.

key words: ionosphere formation, photo ionization, electric field in atmosphere. Charge polarization in ionosphere.

Introduction

The atmosphere containing sufficient free electrons and ions is known as ionosphere. The ionosphere is well perceived between 60 km to 600 km of altitude with identified D, E, F₁, F₂ layers. According to the existing concept, the ionizing solar radiation entering the upper thin atmosphere penetrates deeper and deeper where it encounters greater and greater density of gas and produces more and more electrons per unit volume. The radiation, however, is absorbed in the photoelectric process. Thus, below a certain height the rate of production of electron decreases. Hence, there is a level at which, the rate of production is highest. This consideration of peak electron density in ionosphere assumes the simplified form of one class of ionizing radiation from the sun and one type of gas with a single ionizing potential. In reality, the problem is much more complicated with the solar spectrum spreading over a wide range of wavelengths and the atmosphere containing many gases. While the production of electrons by photo-ionization goes on, the loss of electrons also constantly in progress by recombination, attachment and migration. Thus, the net electron density in ionosphere is decided by the dynamic equilibrium of both ionization and the loss processes. As on today this is the only model available to understand the formation of ionosphere. There are many limitations of this ionospheric theory [1]. For example,  why should  there be a mid-night  peak of electron density?; how can the ionospheric shells be alternately charged [2]?; why the recombination and attachment coefficients are not consistent during the mid-day bite and during the eclipse?; why the night sky is not bright due to recombination process?; why should there be an unevenness in the peak electron density in D-region?; why should there be a shift in the mid-day peak towards the afternoon?; why should the ionosphere experience a vertical movement (an excursion of 1 km) in E-layer with a period of half lunar day?; why the meteor based  ionization is confined to a narrow belt around 105 km?; what makes the sub-layers in different ionospheric layers to form?; how a stronger ionization is possible in Jupiter with a low density  solar  radiation? Etc. The existing ionospheric theory does not explain the upper ionospheric shells such as the formation of Van Allen belt, magnetospheric belt. We have made use of different theories to explain the same. The formation of mid-night electron density peak clearly reveals that the photo-ionization process is not the only basis of formation of ionosphere. Further it is difficult to predict the newly identified alternate charge polarity of successive ionospheric shells from the present theory. Thus, the author takes the view that the ions and electrons coming in the solar wind and those produced by photo ionization organizes a typically earth based polarized structure and further the organized structure undergoes modification with solar-terrestrial relationship.

A New Concept of Ionospheric Charge Shells 

Erman (1804) theorized that the Earth was negatively charged, and Peltier (1842) tested and confirmed Erman’s idea [3]. Atmospheric electricity is always present, and during fine weather away from thunderstorms, the air above the surface of Earth is positively charged, while the Earth’s surface charge is negative. The Earth has a vertical electric field of about 100 volts per meter (V/m) near the surface, which decreases with altitude [3]. The global air electric current magnitude is 1800 amperes (A) across the entire planet. The current is caused by the potential difference of 400 kV between the top of the atmosphere and the surface, which is due to the low conductivity of the lower atmosphere [4]. The surface of the earth and the ionospheric shells are found to be electrically charged [2]. The surface of the earth being negatively charged attracts the positive ions and repels the negative ions and free electrons in the ionosphere. The negative ions and free electrons are repelled by negative charge of earth’s surface but they are attracted by gravity of the earth. On the other hand, the positive charges are attracted by gravity as well as attracted by the negative charge of the earth’s crust. Closer to the surface of the earth, the charge repulsion to negative ions and free electrons are much stronger as compared to the gravitational attraction. This makes the negative ions and free electrons to move away of the earth’s surface and positive charges move towards the earth causing the air-earth current. Moving away from the surface of the earth, we notice that, the charge repulsion forces drop more rapidly than the attraction due to gravity. At some height (say 96 km) the charge repulsion and gravitational attraction becomes equal and opposite and electrons find a stable site at this height (Fig.1). Beyond this distance, the gravity force becomes stronger than the charge repulsion from the earth. Hence, all higher up negative charges move downward and settle down at 96 km. This makes a stable negatively charged ionospheric shell. Once the first negatively charged ionospheric shell is formed at 96 km it would organize and form one more negatively charged ionospheric shell at higher altitude following the same logic. Likewise, many more negatively charged ionospheric shells are formed one over the other as far as the gravity field of earth is dominant in space (Fig.2). The negatively charged shells in the ionosphere will not remain idle, they however, will organize positively charged shells in between the negatively charged shells due to equipotential attraction from the negatively charged shells. Thus, the entire ionospheric shell structure is formed with alternate positive and negative polarity (Fig.3). We shall further see how this shell structure is deformed by the charge attraction/repulsion from the sun.

Abstract

The cosmos and everything in it are inherently dynamic. Energy must play a part in this dynamic. Therefore, in relation to some frame of reference, every existence is connected to some kind of energy. According to macro domain physics, matter always possesses energy as a result of many state properties (such as temperature, pressure, velocity, etc.). The idea of energy in micro particles, which include atomic and subatomic particles, is derived from quantum mechanics. When it comes to light particles, energy is quantized without mass in the finer (micro-micro) domain. It is challenging to envision a single energy standard for all of nature’s domains as the idea of energy is so varied throughout them. We find that the light particle (photon) has mass if its mass is measured in the photonic mass unit (PMU), which escapes our inspection when measured in the atomic mass unit (AMU). However, via their interactions, the energy contained in these particles makes their presence known. The photon is reduced to a quantized energy if its mass is disregarded. A part of mass is transformed into nuclear radiation (photons), which release energy, in a nuclear reaction. We are led to conclude that “mass is converted to energy in nuclear reaction” by our conception of light particles as having zero mass. The mass-energy conversion is justified by the well-known equation E=MC². Some believe that energy is the foundation of all physical reality. Assuming that the universe’s energy was concentrated in one place before the explosion, the Big Bang theory describes how the physical cosmos came into being. In light of the aforementioned, the idea of energy in modern science varies depending on the field. It is difficult to create a unified theory of energy for the macro, micro, and micro-micro domains as it necessitates conceptual adjustments at the fundamental level of science. A new path for the transformation of the energy scenario has been made possible by the updated understanding of matter as a mass-space integral system with a mass-space structure and the new understanding that light particles have mass in photonic mass units. The newly adjusted energy parameters offer the potential to address energy from a single notion across all domains.

Key words: Unified concept of energy, energy in micro particles, modes of energy in photons, mass-space structure, and duality of light. Mass of Photon.

Discussion

In macro concept energy is always possessed by matter and energy without mass has no self-existence. Hence matter inherits energy by virtue of some state property of matter. This concept of energy is free from ambiguity. On the other hand, entering into finer domain we made deviation from the macro concept of energy. For example, the thermal energy in macro domain is understood through kinetic energy in micro domain. Again, entering into micro-micro domain, we are made to believe-1) energy can have self-existence without matter; 2) energy is quantized to different energy density giving rise to different energy levels including high energy states and the high energy state of energy is equated with mass. The way we interpret energy differently for macro domain and micro domain gives a feeling, as if, something is wrong somewhere in our understanding for which we conceptualize energy in two different manners in two different domains of nature. Exploring harmony between the concepts of energy in macro domain and micro domain doesn’t appear feasible with the prevailing concepts of science. The understanding of light through duality and understanding the tunnelling of electron are not in the true spirit of science. Hence, we need further study for unravelling the secret of energy. Vedic science is helpful in augmenting the concept of space in modern science with its rich concepts. But we cannot borrow the concept of energy from Vedic science because significance of energy in Vedic interpretation is not clear and lacs quantitative evaluation.

We find the concept of energy in macro domain is better expressive in different forms. This author feels the macro concept of energy with different forms is close to reality and the same can be extended to other domains. Therefore, the concept of energy in micro domain has scope for modification in the light of the concept of energy in macro domain. This is not easy but not impossible. Despite differences, all sciences are univocal in accepting energy as the capacity to do work. This author is hopeful in realizing the classification of different forms of energy in micro domain by identifying the missing parameters of energy.

We have different forms of energy possessed in matter such as, kinetic energy by virtue of velocity; thermal energy (heat energy) by virtue of thermal charge potential (temperature); electrical energy by virtue of electric charge potential (voltage); gravitational energy by virtue of mass and position in a given gravity field; magnetic energy in magnetic material by virtue of magnetic field potential, pressure energy by virtue of pressure potential, potential energy in elastic membrane by virtue of strain potential etc. The above classification of energy corresponds to different forms of energy in macro domain. Entering to micro domain (micro particles) only kinetic energy and the field energies are taken into consideration. The thermal energy of micro particles is conceptualized through kinetic energy of micro particle and gas temperature expressed as the average kinetic energy of molecules. The temperature of ion and electron in low pressure plasma is expressed as kinetic temperature of corresponding particles. How far it is justified to consider the thermal energy of a particle is nothing but the kinetic energy of micro particle?  If molecules in gas are not making random motion then kinetic theory of gas is not a reality [1]. Hence, we need to modify the significance of temperature of gas from different aspects of its structure. This author has described elsewhere [2] the new concept of temperature and new interpretation of the laws of gas from the mass-space structure of gas where space is a physical entity. According to the new concept, matter in any domain is a mass-space integral system [3] hence macro bodies and micro particles can have different mass to space ratio giving rise to different states of matter. Temperature being the thermal state of a body can be justified from the nature of mass-space structure. We need not consider the random motion criterion to express the thermal state of a body. In this new concept an atom can have different thermal state (temperature) and can possess different level of thermal energy independent of its kinetic energy. A hot atom is in motion can possess both thermal and kinetic energy and not the total energy in the form of kinetic energy. Interpretation of temperature from mass-space structure differentiates the two forms of energies (thermal and kinetic energies) in micro particles similar to that in macro bodies.

In the new concept, light particles are matter particles having mass in photonic mass units [4]. Hence, they have mass-space structure and can have different thermal state of matter in different association of mass & space and possess kinetic energy by virtue of its motion. The light particles also carry non-electric charge (photonic charge) in the state of non-equilibrium mass-space structure with respect to the mass-space structure of particles in its surrounding [5]. The micro-micro particles (light particles) having mass in photonic mass unit can have its mass-space structure. Hence both micro particles and micro-micro particles can have different forms of energy similar to that possessed by macro bodies.

Each form of energy has an energy level. Energy is possessed in matter by virtue of the state property of matter. Higher is the potential of the state-property of matter higher is the level of energy. For example, higher is the velocity of a body higher is the level of kinetic energy and higher is the temperature of a body higher is the level of thermal energy. One can increase the kinetic energy of a body by increasing the velocity as well as the mass.  Body A can have higher kinetic energy at lower velocity than that of body B when body A has a higher mass. Even though the kinetic energy of body A is higher than that of body B, the energy level of body A is lower than that of body B. Energy level is an important parameter that decides whether the available energy can overcome a field barrier. Therefore, the energy level parameter of energy is instrumental in deciding whether the available energy is able to perform a work in overcoming the barrier of the work function. If energy level is capable of performing a work function then the available energy comes into picture for evaluating the extent of work that can be done by the available energy.

Light is considered as a particle as well as a wave. The energy of light wave is given by hυ where h is Plank’s constant andυis the frequencies of light wave. We know from photo electric effect that a bundle of light particle (photon) carrying energy in excess of ionization potential knocks out an electron. Only ultraviolet ray and x-ray is able to produce ionization. If energy is the only criteria in knocking out an electron from atom then low frequency light at high intensity could have performed the photo ionization. But this does not happen. By increasing the intensity of low frequency light increases the light energy but not the energy level. Hence the term hυ corresponds to energy level and not energy. Because the energy level of light has a say on the feasibility of the work function. If the energy level is satisfied for the work function then the quantity of such light (at same energy level) collectively having the energy of ionization potential can knockout an electron.

A body having mass possesses energy by virtue of its state property. The energy per unit mass of the body corresponds to specific energy or energy level. How can we think of energy and energy level for a mass-less particle? Light particles are no more mass-less [4]. If light particles have mass in photonic mass unit, then it is most likely that the mass of photon have a range like the mass of atomic particles, stars and galaxies in other domains. Now it is possible to perceive the energy and energy level of photons having mass in photonic mass units. Consider a photon of mass n in photonic mass units (PMU). The energy level of photon of mass n is equal to E/n where E is the energy of photon. Scientists consider energy of light particles and they are silent about the energy level of light particles. What we know from macro domain physics, every mode of energy has an energy level where the energy level is responsible for the feasibility of work function. In the existing science we consider the energy of electron while overcoming any field barrier but not the energy level. Likewise, we also consider the energy of a photon while knocking out an electron from atomic structure (Photo electric effect). Hence, the author considers, what we call energy unknowingly, in reality, refers to energy level since the said energy has a say on feasibility of work function.

If we disturb the equilibrium of a system in a given surrounding then the system comes to a state of non-equilibrium. The system in non-equilibrium state being unstable comes to equilibrium by auto-action. Whereas one has to spend energy to bring an equilibrium system to non-equilibrium state. A system in non-equilibrium state has energy with respect to its surrounding. If some obstruction is put on the way of the system approaching equilibrium then the system would overcome the obstacle and comes to equilibrium. The disturbed system while overcoming the obstacle does work. The obstacle can be designed to perform a useful work. Any form of energy obeys this phenomenon of nature.

In the new concept any system in any domain is a mass-space integral system. Likewise, all other systems in its surrounding are also a mass-space integral system. The equilibrium of system and surrounding means the mass-space equilibrium between system and surrounding. An atom in a gas has same space holding per unit of mass as that of the atoms in its surrounding where the atom as the system and atoms of the surrounding are in the state of equilibrium. If certain amount of extra nucleus space associated with the nucleus of an atom is removed then the atom with non-equilibrium space holding comes to active state to acquire space from its surrounding. Matter in active state possesses energy relative to the neutral matters in its background. The mass-space structure of atom is discussed elsewhere [6]. However, for convenience of readers the mass-space structure of atom is described below in brief.

The universe comprises mass and space as its only physical constituents [3]. There exist three basic interactions in mass and space. The basic interactions are-1) mass-space attraction. 2) space-space repulsion and 3) mass-mass repulsion. These basic interactions are the primary cause of all fundamental forces of nature operating in different domains of including gravity, electromagnetic, strong nuclear and weak nuclear forces [3]. Coming to new mass-space structure of atom, the dense mass of nucleus of atom attracts space from its surrounding and builds a space density (space content per unit volume) graded structure. The space structure surrounding the nucleus does not collapse onto the surface of the nucleus as the space-space repulsion resists the compaction of space. The space density graded space structure contains space matter particles of finer domain due to mass-space attraction. The number density of space matter particles is proportional to space density. The extra-nuclear space structure also contains orbital particles. The space holding per unit of mass has different value for nucleus and for orbital bodies. The space holding per unit mass of space matter particles have different values depending on their location in the extra nuclear space structure. The space holding per unit mass of atom is subject to change with loss or gain of associated extra-nuclear space content, orbital bodies (electrons) and space matter particles. A change of space holding of atom from its equilibrium space holding brings the atom to non-equilibrium state with reference to atom in its surrounding. The said atom with non-equilibrium space holding is a source of energy with respect to its background. The loss or gain of pure space from equilibrium space structure causes pressure energy; the loss or gain of space matter particles changes the thermal energy state and loss or gain of electron changes the electric energy state of atom. Loss of space rich component matter from a neutral matter makes the matter mass rich i.e. the mass content per unit of space holding becomes higher than that of neutral matter where it is positively charged. With higher and higher percentage loss of space from neutral matter the positively charged matter has higher and higher percentage of deficiency of space. Higher the degree of positive charge in matter higher is the acute shortage of space content in matter and the interaction of matter with matters of background become stronger & vigorous with more and more shortage of space content. This is like the hungrier man struggles more vigorously to acquire food.

The mass rich particles carry positive charge and the space rich particles with deficiency of mass carry negative charge in a relative charge scale by taking zero charge of neutral matter. The positive charge potential goes on increasing with increase of mass component in matter and negative charge potential goes on increasing with increase of space content. The values of relative charge potential can be converted to absolute charge potential by considering the absolute zero charge potential of pure compact space without mass (a hypothetical condition) to 100% absolute charge potential for pure mass without space (another hypothetical condition) because matter exists as mass-space integral system. In the absolute scale all values are positive. There is no existence of a negative value in absolute scale. The charge is electrical when the matter is atomic or subatomic particle. The charge is thermal or photonic when the particle is a photon. Again, the charge becomes celestial for a celestial body. Exchange of electrons and photons between celestial bodies changes the mass/space ratio of the celestial bodies hence the celestial charge state of a celestial body is changed.

We know a macro body has macro structure with macro phases. This is well revealed from the macro structure of concrete block with distinct phases of stone-aggregate, sand particles and the cement matrix. Each of the macro phases is known to have microstructure composed of micro atomic matter. We are not aware of matters of finer domain below micro domain. Though finer existences of light particles and different field forming particles are well known in science but they are not regarded as particles of matter as their mass is zero. This author argues that photon particles have mass in photonic mass units (PMU) even though their mass is not revealed in atomic mass units (AMU). If we accept the matter value of particles in micro-micro domain then each micro constituent can have its structure comprising micro-micro particles. Thus, a macro body has macro structure, micro structure and micro-micro structure [7]. Hence a macro body can have thermal energy possessed by the mass space structure of unbound photons and electrical energy possessed by mass space structure of free electrons, gravitational energy due to mass of the body and kinetic energy due to motion of mass. When photons are released from a body, the first assumption one would make is- photons were present in the structure of the body and they came out when the structure was disturbed. If we do not accept the rest existence of photon in matter then we are left with the option that photons are created by electron.

Light is considered as a particle as well as a wave. Even though the dual nature of light is well accepted, nothing prevents one to wonder for whether the duality is a reality of nature or a manmade conclusion in helpless condition! According to Veda, Satyam eka Bahudha Badanti Bipre. Fact can be interpreted in many different ways by experts but the truth (reality) remains as one. To understand the reality of light one has to accept any one concept i.e. either the particle nature of light or the wave nature of light and then improve the concept to understand all phenomena of light from the concept. In particle concept, the light particles move through the medium by displacing the medium whereas in wave concept light is propagated through waves in the medium. Thus, in particle concept of light both particle and medium has a role to play in propagation of light but in wave concept, the propagation of light is a sole function of medium. The rectilinear propagation of light is fully satisfied when light is a particle. The wave concept of light fails to justify the rectilinear propagation as waves spread in a medium. The reflection of light is more convincing through particle concept of light. The photo electric effect of light is feasible in particle concept of light. But the particle concept of light has limitation in explaining the phenomena of refraction, interference and polarization. However improved understanding of structure and features of light particles and the structure of vacuum/space medium has scope of understanding all phenomena of light through particle nature of light. The particle nature of light is conceptually acceptable. On the other hand, light as a wave without medium is unrealistic and no less a wonder. Again, velocity of light wave in water remaining unaffected in moving water questions the validity of very wave concept of light. For example, the velocity of a wave in stationary medium is given by υλwhereυ is the frequency and λ is the wave length. If the medium is moving in the direction of motion of light at velocity v then the expected velocity of light wave in the above moving medium would be υλ+v. But Fizeau’s experiment on effect of moving water carrying the light wave gave negative result [8]. Again Michelson–Morley made experiment and compared the speed of light in perpendicular directions to detect the relative motion of matter through the luminiferous ether. The result was negative [9]. It is evident from above experiments that the wave concept of light does not yield the expected result hence the wave concept of light should have been rejected without compromise. Instead the wave concept was retained with the hypothesis that light waves do not require a medium [10]. One may wonder as to what is the significance of a wave without a medium! At this juncture, one feels, the particle theory of light is close to reality and the wave theory is based on hypothetical construct. Therefore, the particle theory of light could have been improved to understand all phenomena of light but this was not done. The concept of space medium has been changing and it is now accepted as a physical entity. Simply presence of a medium (physical space) is not enough to propagate the light wave. Propagation of high frequency waves requires a medium of high stiffness. It is well known that the space medium cannot provide the required stiffness property for propagation of light wave. Hence under no circumstances the space medium can transmit the light waves. This author has proposed elsewhere the new mass-space structure of light particle by identifying the mass of light particles in photonic mass units and further identified the presence of non-electric charge (photonic charge) in light particles [5]. The author has explained all phenomena of light from particle nature of light. It looks, we can dispense with the wave concept of light thereby remove the duality of light.

Einstein’s famous equation E=MC² made us to know mass is equivalent of energy. This made us clear as to how energy is created by loss of mass in nuclear reaction. We are used to the macro concept that energy is always possessed in matter by virtue of some state property of matter. To conceptualize quantized energy without matter (mass) looks unrealistic. We are not sure of the zero rest-mass of light particle simply because we have not explored the photonic mass scale. It is something like concluding the mass of atoms as zero by weighing it in a way bridge. May be in future we would know that the mass of photon is not zero. The rest mass of neutrino is so small that it was long thought to be zero [11]. The rest mass of neutrino is much smaller than that of other known elementary particles. Like the neutrino, the photon, at present, though considered to have zero mass in atomic mass units (AMU) but would be found to have mass in photonic mass unit. The new non-zero mass concept of light particles (photons) has scope of building harmony with the concept of energy in macro domain. It is easy to say ‘matter converts to energy’ but difficult to perceive the mechanism of conversion in a path function. If light particles have tinny mass in PMU then the energy produced in nuclear reaction can be conceptualized as energy produced by disintegration of dense mass of the nucleus where the nucleus breaks to some mass bearing known particles and less known debris (light particles having mass in PMU). A stone breaker breaks when breaks stone with the impact of a hammer he makes stone chips and, in the process, some fine debris (stone dusts) is also produced. It is necessary to account for the debris to make the mass balance before and after crushing of stone. Similarly, the lost mass in nuclear reaction can be accounted for by the masses carried by the chipped off photons and the energy of nuclear reaction is produced by disintegration of dense mass forming nuclei of photons and their extra-nuclear space structure.

Conclusion

Uniformity of the norms of nature is well perceived in macro domain physics. There is no reason why should there be a break of the uniformity of structure, feature and the laws in finer domains of nature unless it is postulated differently. A strong faith on uniformity of nature can help to modify our domain specific understanding of energy to one comprehensive unified understanding of energy and energy level irrespective of domain. Again, the manner in which matter possesses energy by virtue of some state property can be generalized for all domains by conceptualizing matter value (mass) in all existences in finer domains below micro domain. This new understanding would modify our existing concept that ‘matter converts to energy’ to a natural concept that energy is liberated when a part of dense mass is disintegrated to fine debris forming nuclei of photons where the nuclei forms the mass-space structure liberating energy. The new understanding of mass-space structure of light particle has scope to explain the nonelectric charges in mass-space non-equilibrium state. The light particles having mass in PMU and carrying non-electric charge (photonic charge) has scope to explain different phenomena of light without duality. Duality is never a reality of nature. Nature is always consistent with its basic constituent with basic interaction norms (laws) which we discover by exploring nature but at times we deviate away of nature. The deviation from nature can still yield result by making further unnatural assumptions. The new concept of energy would help to read nature in a natural manner. The author is also hopeful in developing harmony between the concepts of energy in Vedic science and modern science.

This article is a part of the original work published in the book “Universal Mystery Unfolded”, Volume-3 of the series “Dynamics of universe; interplay of matter, space and charge”, 2012 by the same author.

Reference

1. https://philosophyofnature.org.in/understanding-the-structure-and-dynamics-of-galaxy-and-the-reality-behind-the-concepts-of-black-hole-dark-matter-and-random-motion-of-molecules-in-gas.
2. New concepts of pressure & temperature and new static theory of gas (page no.139), Universal Mystery unfolded, Dynamics of Universe interplay of matter, space and charge, vol.3.
3. https://philosophyofnature.org.in/basic-constituents-of-universe-and-their-interactions/.
4. https://philosophyofnature.org.in/towards-a-new-comprehensive-universal-science/.
5. https://philosophyofnature.org.in/electric-and-non-electric-charges-and-their-inter-conversion/.
6. https://philosophyofnature.org.in/mass-space-structure-of-centrally-organized-systems/.
7. https://philosophyofnature.org.in/different-domains-of-nature/.
8. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fizeau_experiment#:~:text=The%20Fizeau%20experiment%20was%20carried,upon%20the%20speed%20of%20light.
9. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michelson%E2%80%93Morley_experiment.
10. https://physics.stackexchange.com/questions/712775/what-does-light-travel-through-or-why-it-is-independent-of-a-medium.
11. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutrino#:~:text=The%20neutrino%20is%20so%20named,particles%20(excluding%20massless%20particles).