Abstract

In this work, the facts and figures relating to the phenomenon of global warming are presented and then the remoter causes underlying the immediate, visible causes that have been discussed extensively in the literature on the subject are discussed. Our analysis shows that there are in the collective psyche of mankind deeper problems which need to be addressed in order for us to be able to have any lasting solution worth the name to the various problems that we have been facing. In particular, we show that the very concept of human progress and development that we’ve been adhering to so far is in serious need of a reappraisal in the wake of the myriad global concerns that it has engendered in all spheres of human activity. Our incomplete understanding of ourselves, of mother nature and of the interrelationship obtaining between them, coupled with a serious misunderstanding of the purpose of our existence in the whole scheme of the cosmos, and also, our selfish actions stemming out of such ignorance can be seen to be the true causes behind our sufferings and fears at the individual, social and global levels of existence. We argue that any kind of superficial or half measures (like the carbon trading or the sustainable earth society proposal) in addressing the crises facing us without tackling these fundamental issues will simply push the problems a little farther into the future so that we’ll inevitably have to meet them in future, but in a more dangerous form, and may be, even in a humanly insolvable form. The role of India as a global awakener to these deeper issues is emphasized and exhortations are made through the instrumentality of this article to all Indians to wake up to their sacred duty of leading the global community out of the impending crises by propagating the spiritual vision of life as the supreme ideal and the goal of all humanity at all times and climes.

Keywords: Global Warming, Green House Gases, Carbon trading.

Introduction

A century of industrial civilization has brought mankind face to face with numerous problems arising out of an upsetting of the balance and the rhythm of nature so much so that the alarm bell has been sounded with regard to a possible wiping out of large sections of human population by the end of the current century owing to the flooding and submergence of the coastlands of the world which include some of the world’s most populous and most advanced cities. Disastrous changes in the global and local climatic patterns, increase in the spread of epidemics and in the range and the frequency of natural calamities, food crisis, water crisis and energy crisis are all simultaneously staring at us to completely overthrow our “supreme ruler” status on the planet earth before long. Global warming is one of the stages through which all these terrifying phenomena are going to take their toll on us and its recognition by the world community has come as a timely “global warning”  to call a halt to the ongoing anthropogenic unsettling of the equilibrium of nature in the name of progress of civilization. The warmest decade recorded in history so far has been the decade from 2014 to 2023 [1].

It goes without saying that the extent and the intensity of damage to the environment has increased manifold because of technological applications of scientific knowledge in the production of consumer goods through the setting up of industries on a large scale to meet the ever-growing demands of the burgeoning world population. And we have gotten habituated to the logic that there is no other alternative to the fulfilling of the selfish desires in man through the indiscriminate exploitation of nature. This has resulted in the pollution of all the components of our environment which has been sustaining life on earth since eons. We have land/soil pollution, water pollution, radiation/light pollution, air pollution and also sound/noise pollution– in short, all the five great elements viz. Earth, water, fire, air and space have been polluted. Desires are inevitable; fulfilment is inevitable; increased consumption is inevitable; increase in production is inevitable; industrialization is inevitable; pollution is inevitable and finally, this chain of inevitability lands us in the inevitability of global warming and the associated catastrophic consequences thereof. The warmest year since 1850 has been the year 2023 [2]. This is where in the history of the world we find ourselves now and we shall be discussing these in detail in section-II below.

In section-III, we discuss the true causes behind this scenario with special emphasis on the role of India in this context to rise up to its age-old status of the world-teacher and awakener to the higher ideals of life wherein the perfect remedy to the crises facing mankind are to be found. The lopsided view of human life with its well-known tilt towards sense satisfactions, the lopsided view of nature as a milch-cow for the selfish desires of man and the incorrect understanding and approach in respect of the man-nature relationship have to be set right in the light of the spiritual, all-comprehensive and integral view of life propagated by the great saints and sages of India right from the era of the Vedas up to the present times.

We conclude the essay in section-IV with a discussion of the main ideas presented and the modalities of practically implementing them in our day-to-day lives in right earnest as concerned individuals so as to rid the earth of the impending crises of various hues and dimensions including global warming.

Global Warming: Facts and Figures  

The factors influencing the mean global temperature are many but the most important ones can be listed as follows:

(a) the intensity of solar radiation,

(b) the orbital position of the earth,

(c) the infra-red absorptivity of the earth-atmosphere system,

(d) the forest cover,

(e) the mean annual rainfall, and

(f) the heat produced by natural and anthropogenic combustion,

in order of their effectiveness.

The first two are obviously beyond any human interference or control but the last four have a partial dependence on human activities and it is here that the phenomenon of global warming assumes a human responsibility. In particular, the third factor above, namely, the infra-red absorptivity of the earth-atmosphere system is dependent on the reflectance of the earth surface and the concentration of the so-called greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Greenhouse gases are the ones that have strong peaks in the infra-red region in their absorption spectra and thus absorb the heat that is radiated by the earth surface thereby trapping the heat in the system. This leads to the phenomenon of global warming that has become a major concern today because the atmospheric concentration of greenhouse gases (GHG_s) like carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane (CH₄), nitrogen oxides (NO_x) and CFC_s (chlorofluorocarbons) has been continuously increasing due to various human activities.

The primary GHG with an appreciable concentration (~350ppm) and also an appreciable rate of increase in concentration is carbon dioxide which contributes around 57% of the total heat trapped, although its global warming potential is low compared to the others. The most dangerous are the CFCs which have a concentration of only 0.32 ppm but contribute around 25% of the total heat trapped because they are 10,000 to 15,000 times more effective in trapping heat compared to CO₂. Methane has a concentration of 1.7ppm and contributes 12% of the heat trapped. These data are displayed in the following two tables to contrast between the year 2003 and 2023[3].

                                                               TABLE – I: The essential facts and figures causing Global Warming (2003 AD)

(Table – I: The essential facts and figures causing Global Warming)

The CO₂-content in the atmosphere has seen a 30% increase (from ~ 275 ppm nearly 100 years ago it has reached ~ 350 ppm now) in the past century and is projected to increase by 50% by 2050 and to become double by the year 2100. Similarly, the concentrations of all the other GHGs have been showing consistent increase primarily due to the causes mentioned in the tables [4,5]. The global warming potentials (GWP) are estimated over a time horizon of 100 years [6].

The impact of the increase in CO₂-concentration alone has been predicted to be devastating, to say the least. It has been shown that it would result in an increase in the average global temperature by about 1.6 to nearly 6 degrees by 2100 and that most of the coastal areas of the present landmass would be submerged due to sea-level rise following the melting of the polar ice caps. The other major effects would be the drastic global and local climatic changes; upsetting of the biodiversity in the natural habitats like forests due to the extinction or migration of several species which would find it difficult to cope with the changed climatic conditions; alterations in the global cropping patterns; food and water scarcity; very hot and humid summers in India with hovering tropospheric clouds and smog, and a probable ceasing of the monsoon altogether;  increase in the cardiovascular, respiratory and cerebro-vascular diseases due to the increased temperature; increase in the frequency and the spread of tropical epidemics like amoebiasis malaria and worm infections etc. due to the greater rate of spread of vectors and the increased frequency and intensity of the climatic disasters like cyclones etc., all of which are going to be extremely dangerous to our existence[7].

This has sounded the warning bell in all quarters and efforts are now on to somehow cut down or reduce the emission of GHGs. However, the major offenders happen to be the developed nations of the West and they are not ready to compromise on their own development agenda through industrialization and they are also aggressively engaged in the industrial development of other so-called less developed or developing nations which have no other go but to follow the concept of material progress through industrialization held up by the developed ones. As a result, there is an ever-increasing trend in the emission of GHGs in spite of all our knowledge about the hazardous consequences. Tables 1 and 2 give us a clear picture of how the earth is getting warmer year after year.

                                                                                                   Table-2: (2023 AD)

The three major blocks to effectively cutting down on the production of GHGs are:

(a) the philosophic block,

(b) the nationalistic block, and 

(c) the individualistic block 

in order of their profundity and these have led to elaborate defense mechanisms from very fertile western minds in the form of the proposals or half measures like (a) the sustainable development Goals (b) carbon trading proposal and also arguments that base themselves on (c) Natural positivism: the assumed self-correcting ability of nature to maintain the ecological balance by setting right any deviations (e. g. by developing new forms of polythene-degrading microbes to take care of the land and water pollution by the dumping of polythene) and, (d) Technological positivism: the assumed future ability of the earthlings (i.e. scientists) to not only develop cleaner, greener and environment-friendly technologies which will replace the currently adopted ones before long, but also by their very ingenious inventions, to set right any damage done to the environment by the continued industrial assault till that time[8,9].

These can very easily be seen to be clever but extremely detrimental arguments advanced for the furtherance of individual or national goals at the expense of the rest of the world stemming from a lack of understanding of the basic purpose of life on earth in general and of human life in particular. We discuss these issues at greater length in the following paragraphs in order to clear the air of misunderstanding now prevailing the world over due to the march of materiality as the sole determinant of progress, the sole marker of development.

Global Warming: Causes and Cures

The questions that are to be addressed are of a very fundamental character like – “why at all we need industrialization?”, and as such cannot be answered within the domain of science and technology. They have more to do with the inner make-up of man as a composite of the body, the senses and the mind which veils his true innermost identity as a ray of divinity. The psychological being of man is such that it wants to acquire, possess and enjoy what it finds is external to itself because of a very deeper connection of itself with the latter in a unity at their common non-dual source [10]. It gets attached to the object thus enjoyed and pines more and more for a more lasting (and if possible, permanent) and more intense (and if possible, the most intense) enjoyment arising out of such contact. Man thus wants his objects to be (a) readily available, i.e., should have less cost, less weight, less size and more portability/mobility, (b) highly durable, i.e., should last longer without wear and tear in spite of continuous use, (c) extremely attractive, i.e., to appeal to the taste of oneself and of others in terms of  shape, colour, polish, finish, appearance etc., and finally, to be  (d) highly versatile, i.e., should have multiple utility, require greater skill, information, knowledge etc.

These criteria are broad enough to apply in respect of both conscious beings and the material things that man desires to acquire, possess and enjoy, and as such, fix the very outlines of man’s inner mental make-up in very general terms. The mind in man works through the senses to rid itself of a peculiar sense of lack of joy in itself and thus prods man to move outwards in pursuit of sense contacts which generate pleasurable sensations through the nervous titillations and give a false sense of enjoyment in the beginning, although, finally they lead to misery and suffering. This is, in a nutshell, the psychology behind all of man’s endeavours on this earth plane all through the millennia of human history [11].

The need felt by man for the technological applications of scientific discoveries and inventions through large scale industrialization and the subsequent notion of progress of civilization based only on such applications is thus seen to be a consequence of this tendency in the psyche of man, or even in the collective psyche of humanity to move outwards in the search of pleasurable sensory contacts and the efforts to cling to such contacts at any cost. And mostly, it is at the cost of one’s own wellbeing, sometimes at the cost of one’s familial or one’s social or national welfare and no wonder then, that one is the least bothered if it is at the cost of the environment [12]. This is what has happened in the end, and we are now having probably the largest number of conferences on the themes relating to the environment because it has been given the least consideration in our selfish agenda of human progress so far.

Having thus briefly pointed out the psychology behind industrialization, we shall now discuss the various blocks that were pointed out in the last section which stand in the way of our cutting down on the GHG output.

(a) The Philosophic Block: The first block that needs to be cleared is the philosophic block which is basically a block in the understanding of the true meaning of life and once this is cleared, the others would not be difficult to overcome. And, this is where the role of India and its spiritual vision of life come as the supreme all-encompassing vision that soothes and embalms the strife-torn nerve fibers of modern civilization. We have strifes of every kind starting from those between individuals and between nations to those between man and nature and even, between man and God Himself!

The philosophic block is cleared once humanity realizes the futility and ephemerality of all endeavors to get lasting happiness out of sense contacts through the falling into the trap of the foolish extroversion of the mind. The mastery over the senses and the mind, known as self-mastery or self-control in spiritual parlance is not such a difficult thing as it sounds on first acquaintance. There have been great self-realized and perfected saints and sages in India in the very recent past like Sri Ramakrishna, Swami Vivekananda, Sri Aurobindo, Paramhamsa Yogananda, Swami Sivananda, Swami Chidananda etc. to name but a few, who not only perfected themselves but also showed by their own personal examples to global humanity the royal road to such perfection and self-mastery through easier and scientifically enunciated steps. But, most unfortunately, their teachings have not found the desired level of favour with their own countrymen who have been blinded, although temporarily, by the hedonistic and consumerist civilization and culture propagated by the west. At the same time their teachings have appealed readily to the westerners who have been searching for inner peace and solace after having tired themselves out in the pursuit of external objects for sense satisfaction. In any case, the Indian mind will- and it must- bounce back from the hedonistic grooves to again set the world on track by propagating the massage of self-control and moderation in respect of sense enjoyments to the whole world at large which is the destined role of India in the world stage- that of the preceptor or teacher of the whole world [13].

The fulfillment of desires is no solution to the problem of desires, since every attempt at such fulfillment increases and intensifies the desire and at the same time has a degrading and debilitating effect on the entire being of man [14] [15]. This, when once understood and internalized as part and parcel of one’s outlook of life and when it starts to guide and direct one’s motivations and actions, one is then said to be on the spiritual path. When this becomes the guiding philosophy of global mankind, truly then shall we have heaven on this very earth. Hedonism, consumerism and all other such crippling isms will take to their wings and industrialization will be seen to be but an aberrant stain, a temporary blot on the spreadsheet of human aspiration for happiness and perfection. The evil effects already generated will die out within no time and humanity would enjoy the supreme calmness, the infinite peace and eternal bliss of God, which is the true goal of civilization.

Once the philosophic block is cleared and humanity clearly sees its well-chalked- out path to supreme felicity, peace and bliss through the spiritual life of absolute harmony with the whole environment, the nationalistic and the individualistic roadblocks can be cleared relatively more easily.

(b) The Nationalistic Block: The most difficult nationalistic block comes from the considerations of not just the economic wellbeing but of the economic growth of a nation, measured in terms of a rising per capita GNP indicative of an increasing per capita consumption. And, this is so ingrained into the thinking of the planners of every nation economic agenda that there is hardly any nation today which would buy the idea of the Physical Quality of Life Indicator (PQLI) which is based on the triple factors of Life Expectancy, Infant Mortality and Literacy, much less the Bhutan King’s proposal of a Gross National Happiness (GNH) as the true markers of a nation’s s developmental status. This situation has to be remedied sooner rather than later if mankind is to see a new dawn at the horizon before the environmental crises really become too severe to be tackled humanly. In fact, the Bhutan king’s proposal is an eye-opener for humanity so that we start asking the right kind of questions at least, if not start following the answers obtained readily. For, to what end are all our attempts at economic growth at the national level if not for the wellbeing and happiness of all citizens of the nation? And, if with the present level of economic growth, we’re not satisfied and happy, what guaranty is there of a satisfaction and happiness suddenly dawning upon the nation at a particular high value of the GNP, since there’s no greatest number and there is no upper limit either to human greed and selfishness apart from that set by the serious reactions set up by the operations of the universal law of action and reaction?

A Human Development Index (HDI) has been proposed to comparatively study the status of human life in various countries which again is based almost entirely on the western notions of development. We wish to move ahead and propose the concept of Spiritual Development Index (SDI) which will be the true marker of the development of a nation for then the index will be based on the virtuous and spiritual qualities of the citizens which are truly above the ordinary level of human qualities like acquiring, possessing and enjoying of objects of sense satisfaction. These higher qualities like  Truthfulness, Nonviolence, Purity, servicefulness, contentment, universal love, compassion, selflessness, endurance, equanimity, control of the senses and the mind, divine contemplation and prayerfulness, and, the spirit of sacrifice for the wellbeing of others etc., can each be measured by adopting appropriate questionnaires as is done in measuring, for instance, one’s leadership skills etc., and appropriately weighted to give the picture of the spiritual quality of the life of a nation.

Indians must pioneer efforts in such directions following the footsteps of the great saints and sages so as to be the harbinger of a new era of spiritual development of the entire humanity. We must forget once and for all our dismal records and scores in terms of indices formulated by western minds which are based on a materialistic understanding of life and thus are of an inferior character compared to the SDI. We must usher in a new dawn of civilization beyond humanity to super-humanity since the human is not the ordained end of evolution but only a rung in the middle, albeit, an extraordinary one at that.

The nationalistic arguments of economic superiority, defence preparedness, rising productivity and rising levels of consumption by the citizens as primary indicators of development would then lose their importance and we must open ourselves up to such broader and deeper understanding of the facts of life than are presently thought of or paraded. A more austere national and global life of reduced consumption, equitable distribution and voluntary sharing of the available resources amongst all members are the wisest course of action and probably the only alternative before global mankind to ensure extinction. Though mankind does not yet seem to be ready for such a paradigm shift in national and international policies, it is easily seen to be gradually and almost inevitably moving towards such an eventuality and, here again, India has to take the lead and show the path by its own example. Are we ready?

(c) The Individualistic Block:   Having thus tackled the nationalistic blocks we can now rather effortlessly handle the trickier problem of the individualistic roadblock to environmental safety. These stem from the vices that the human mind is prone to, namely, lust, greed, hatred, anger, jealousy and egoism. The capitalists want to amass as much as they can by using various tactics and policies that are detrimental to the environment, to their own brethren and in the final analysis, to themselves also. They care not a hoot to cause grave damages to the delicate balance of nature because of being blinded by greed and the profit motive and thus quite unthinkingly exploit natural resources beyond limits. They advance sound arguments and convince the respective governments of the possible benefits that are going to accrue to the state exchequer if their projects are implemented, but, in reality, in their hardened hearts, they want to fatten their own purse and increase the number of digits in their net profit. In the name of liberalization and globalization, the western capitalist forces have now dominated the world’s markets and consumerism has reached new heights, never before scaled in the history of mankind.

Our individual likes and dislikes, prides, prejudices and predilections are to be reigned in by the raising of the cane of self-control and self-abnegation in respect of material enjoyments so that we can make amends for the wrongs already committed and can arrest the trend of environmental degradation by reducing the dependence on industrial products and turning instead to products from small cottage industries. Gandhiji’s call to boost cottage industries can still be the saving grace in this hour of crisis if only we pay heed to wise counsel. Cultivation of contentment in regard to one’s lot is of paramount importance as a value to be inculcated in the minds of the public. A superbly cooperative existence for commonweal is to be the ideal in place of a fiercely competitive flux characterized by restlessness, lack of peace and poise, and a mechanical and fast-paced life as has happened in the metropolises. If we do not consciously adopt such strategies, nature will, of course, sooner or later force us to do so, but is it not wiser for a race like humans to adhere to that which is good rather than that which is merely pleasant?  This is as much a choice of the individual at every moment as also of a nation and of humanity as a whole.

The apparent impossibility of reversing the trend of industrialization owes much to our own weakness in regard to sense satisfactions and is therefore sure to lose its shine once there is an inner awakening to the higher values of life. This is the great task before us now as members of humanity and an even greater task before us as Indians who have the responsibility of leading the rest of the world’s population, by their own austere and simple lives to a spiritual peace and beatitude that is unfathomable.

At the same time, if the US and the other Western nations are to lead mankind on the path of material progress through the concept of a global village, they have the onus to ratify and abide by the KYOTO PROTOCOL on reduction of GHGs first. They have to lead by example and sincerity of purpose and not by arrogance and aggression. The arguments based on “my nation first” do not carry much meaning when we are dealing with the future of the entire world. The individual self, the national self and even the collective self of humanity have to be sacrificed, one succeeding the other, if we are to really have peace profound reign supreme on earth- this is the Vedic vision of life enshrined in the famous peace-chants.

The self-contradictory proposals such as Sustainable Development, stem similarly from a lack of confidence in really having a higher-than-human aspiration and in working sincerely towards the realization of such aspiration which aims at such perfection in the human beings as befits gods. Is it too much to expect from a man? If man can heartlessly exploit his environment and his own brethren in the name of progress, if man can ruthlessly bomb his own brethren in the name of establishing his supremacy in one form or the other, why can’t the same man be called upon to show at least some valor to experiment with these proposals which have not only been experimented in India long since and have been proved to be very much possible of attainment by the modern saints that our motherland has produced[8]?

The carbon trading proposal is yet another artefact of western ingenuity to safeguard selfish individual and national interests at the cost of the environment because the ones forwarding such proposals know very well how inefficient the governments the world over have turned out to be in checking deforestation and in promoting afforestation. That companies and industries and corporations will compensate for their carbon dioxide output by undertaking a suitable number of plantations in another’s backyards is as good as a blatant lie. Where the primary motive is safeguarding the rate of increase of the profit, how can they be expected to undertake such measures which will lessen the profit or its rate by some margin? Human greed will again have the upper hand and the environment will suffer heavily but by the time such fraud is detected, we would already have damaged the prospects of our healthy existence a great deal further through global warming. The international community must take note of these facts stated here for the benefit of one and all, so that we’re not pretending on purpose on the issue [9].

Discussion and Conclusion      

We’ve discussed at great length the various issues at the back of the phenomenon of Global warming and pointed out the true causes lying beneath the surface. We have analysed these causes from the angle of the psychology of human desire for ready availability, great durability, attractiveness of features and cost, and also multiple utility of the consumer goods as the causes behind our going industrial from a pastoral-agricultural background. While, there might have been an element of inevitability in such a shift in the history of human progress, it can’t certainly be taken to mean that humans should industrialize so much so that the earth, as the only living planet, is doomed forever! Thus, somewhere we’ve to cry halt to our materialistic frenzy and delve deeper into the causes behind materiality itself.

Thereafter, we come to realize that the triple blocks to implementing the strategies for reduction in the GHGs being released by industries which have damaged the environment and have led to global warming are the philosophical, the national and the individual blocks, which we have discussed at great length and have pointed out India’s role in the coming decades as the global awakener to the higher destiny of mankind far above the petty human pursuits of material objects and financial lucre.

References

1. R. Lindsay and L. Dahlman, Climate Change: Global Temerature, Jan 18, 2024.https://www.climate.gov/news-features/understanding-climate/climate-change-global-temperature
2. G. Schmidt, “Climate models can’t explain 2023’s huge heat anomaly — we could be in uncharted territory”, Nature, vol. 627, pp. 467-467, 2024.
3. Global climate highlights, Climate Copernicus,   https://climate.copernicus.eu/global-climate-highlights-2023
4. US Environmental Protection Agency, Climate change indicators-Atmospheric concentration of Greenhouse gases  https://www.epa.gov/climate-indicators/climate-change-indicators-atmospheric-concentrations-greenhouse-gases
5. Global warming potentials, IPCC Second Assessment Report, https://unfccc.int/process/transparency-and-reporting/greenhouse-gas-data/greenhouse-gas-data-unfccc/global-warming-potentials
6. Lammel G, Graßl H. Greenhouse effect of NOX. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int. 1995 Jul;2(1):40-5. doi: 10.1007/BF02987512. PMID: 24234471.
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8. UNO, Sustainable Development Goals, https://sdgs.un.org/#goal section
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10. Katha Upanishad. 1-1-26
11. Katha Upanishad. 2-1-1
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15. Srimad Bhagavatam, 9-19-14.

Abstract

There exist lots of differences between science and Indian mythology. But many theories of Indian mythology have been proved scientifically sound. It is because the basic knowledge behind establishing some mythological theories is too logical to be accepted by modern science.  The knowledge and theorems described in our mythology should be extensively explored in order to modify if needed so that it will be easily accepted at the international level.

Key words: Planetary system, Modern science, Indian mythology, Nava Graha, Rahu, Ketu.

Introduction

Science and mythology are different in their methods of understanding nature and natural phenomena. Science believes in empirical evidence and experiments, whereas mythology makes use of symbolic and imaginative interpretations. However, both science and mythology share the common goal that is to explain the world. Both science and mythology can be seen as striving to understand and potentially control the world using different methods and approaches.

According to the definition laid by the International Astronomical Union (IAU), our planetary systems in modern science have eight planets: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. All of these eight planets revolve in their respective orbits around the Sun. But in traditional mythological culture, when people say planet, they mean ‘Navagraha’. The idols of ‘Navagraha’ are also worshipped in various Hindu temples or pavilions for public rituals. The ‘Navagraha’ referred to traditional culture are – Sun, Moon, Mars, Mercury, Jupiter, Venus, Saturn, Rahu and Ketu. In Sanskrit, the word ‘Nava‘ means ‘nine‘ and the word ‘Graha‘ means ‘to hold‘. Therefore, planets are deities and celestial bodies that affect our lives. Nine such deities and celestial bodies that affect our lives have been given names, which are called ‘Navagraha’. The present article discusses planetary systems in science and mythology in detail. Further, it has been mentioned that the Indian researchers should give efforts to explore the Indian knowledge system.

Illustration

As far as traditional mythological knowledge is considered, initially, only five planets were taken into consideration. In fact, the five planets which were visible to the naked eye were taken into account. Those five visible planets were – Mars, Mercury, Jupiter, Venus and Saturn. These planets can be seen even today with the naked eye at night. Later, two more very bright bodies that affect our lives were taken to the planetary system. Those two bodies were – the Sun and the Moon. So, the total number of planets became seven, namely – the Sun, the Moon, Mars, Mercury, Jupiter, Venus and Saturn. According to the names of these seven planets, there were seven days. That is: Sunday in the name of the Sun, Monday in the name of the Moon, Tuesday in the name of Mars, Wednesday in the name of Mercury, Thursday in the name of Jupiter, Friday in the name of Venus and Saturday in the name of Saturn. Accordingly, seven heavenly objects are worshipped on their respective days.

People were not satisfied with seven planets. They think of other two concepts which they thought affect their lives. After these seven planets, two more planets were taken into consideration. One is ‘Tamograha‘ or Rahu and the other is ‘Chayagraha‘ or Ketu. But the newly introduced planets are not visible to our eyes. In the eighth or ninth century, Rahu and Ketu were accepted as two planets. Rahu and Ketu are associated with the solar eclipse and the lunar eclipse respectively. In the Puranas, Rahu is the severed head of the demon Svarbhanu, who, disguised as a god, stole nectar and ate it to become immortal. When Svarbhanu was eating nectar in the guise of a god, Surya (Sun) and Chandra (Moon) informed Lord Vishnu about the theft of demon Svarbhanu. Lord Vishnu detached Svarbhanu’s head from his body with the Sudarshan Chakra. Svarbhanu was transformed into two entities after being severed by Vishnu’s chakra. But the tail remained alive because it had eaten nectar. In the Puranas, the head is called Rahu and the rest part (tail) is called Ketu. Both of them roam in the sky. They are angry with the Sun and the Moon. If found the opportunity, Rahu swallows the Sun and Ketu swallows the Moon. When the severed head Rahu swallows the Sun, the Sun disappears causing a solar eclipse. But Rahu is a severed head, which has no throat or stomach. Therefore, Rahu cannot swallow the Sun forever. The Sun enters Rahu’s mouth from one side and exits through the other side. The solar eclipse persists/continues as long as the Sun is hidden during the journey from entry to exit. Similarly, when the moon is consumed by the sun, a lunar eclipse occurs. In Hinduism, planetary science is an important part of Vedic astrology. It is strongly believed that by pronouncing or hearing the name of the nine planets, the ill effects expected on a person due to planetary movements are remedied. Bad thoughts are removed from the mind and positive vibes come into mind. 

If we consider the matter of planets from the modern scientific perspective, there will be no harmony with Shastras and Puranas. According to science, we also had nine planets. They were – Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune and Pluto. But after knowing the real size of Pluto, it was removed on August 24, 2006 from the list of planets. Therefore, the number of planets in our solar system has been reduced to eight today. In Puranas, the Sun and the Moon are considered planets, but in modern science, the Sun is a star which has its own light and the Moon is a satellite revolving around the Sun. As many as eight planets revolve around the Sun. The Earth in Puranas is not considered a planet, but in science, the Earth is a planet, around which the satellite moon revolves. There are no physical bodies named Rahu and Ketu.

Between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter, countless small bodies orbit the Sun. They are called the members of ‘Asteroid Belt’. Our solar system does not end there. After the orbit of the farthest planet Neptune, many small and large cold bodies orbit the Sun. That region is called the ‘Kuiper Belt’. Our ‘solar system’ consists of planets, satellites, asteroids, the Kuiper Belt and countless other bodies orbiting the Sun. Apart from the satellites of the solar system, other bodies are divided into three categories. They are – (a) planets, (b) dwarf planets and (c) minor planets. The real reason for Pluto’s delisting from the list of planets in 2006 is that the bodies considered planets in the ‘solar system’ are much larger than other bodies, they are almost spherical due their own gravity and their orbits are not intersected by the orbits of other celestial bodies. Even though Pluto is large, other celestial bodies intersect its orbit. Pluto does not clear the neighbourhood around its orbit. Therefore, according to the definition, Pluto cannot be called a ‘planet’. Now Pluto is called a ‘dwarf planet’. Including Pluto, there are 5 dwarf planets in our solar system. They are – Ceres, Pluto, Haumea, Makemake and Eris. Apart from the planets, satellites and dwarf planets, the other bodies are grouped in the ‘minor planet’ category. 

Especially in relation to lunar eclipses and solar eclipses, the scientific explanation is completely different from the mythological explanation. Science says that the Earth revolves around the Sun and the Moon revolves around the Earth. During the revolutions, on the day of full moon, the Earth comes between the Moon and the Sun. Similarly, on the day of the new moon, the Moon comes between the Earth and the Sun. If the Sun, the Earth and the Moon are situated exactly in a straight line, then a lunar eclipse occurs on the full moon night and a solar eclipse occurs on the new moon day. The Sun has its own light, but the Moon does not have light. We can see the Moon when the Sun’s rays fall on the Moon. On the day of a full moon, if the Earth is placed in a straight line between the Moon and the Sun, the shadow of Earth falls on the Moon. If the Sun’s rays do not fall on the surface of the Moon, we cannot see the Moon from Earth. This phenomenon is known as the lunar eclipse. However, it is said in the Puranas that a lunar eclipse occurs for the planet Ketu. 

Similarly, on the new moon day, when the moon is placed in a straight line between the Earth and the Sun, the Sun is hidden behind the moon. So we cannot see the sun, which is called a solar eclipse. Thus, both the eclipses are simply the game of light and shadow. Therefore, there is no reason to be scared of the lunar eclipse and the solar eclipse. Scientists always suggest the public to watch with proper precaution and enjoy these astronomical phenomena without fear.

Conclusion

There are a lot of differences between science and mythology. But, both science and mythology attempt to make sense of phenomena that are not easily explained. Such phenomena include the origins of the universe, the nature of existence, the workings of nature and many more. Science and mythology play a crucial role in shaping cultural identities, values, and beliefs as well. Further, science and mythology reflect the evolution of human thought and our attempts to understand the world, with science building upon and refining earlier mythological explanations. Both science and mythology can be seen as striving to understand and potentially control the world, though their methods and approaches differ.

Modern scientific research is much more advanced in comparison to Indian mythology. But at the same time, modern science has accepted many of the theories described in the mythology as correct. Two such very popular examples are: (i) lunar eclipse and (ii) solar eclipse. Indian astrologers can accurately calculate the time of lunar eclipse and solar eclipse even today by dint of traditional knowledge. Thus, there are some basic theorems in mythology which help astrologers to calculate the timings of heavenly phenomena accurately.  Scientists of our country should think more in this aspect. The Indian knowledge system and the theorems described in our mythology should be explored. The results found from such research will further refine the knowledge of our mythology, which will be easily accepted at the international level.

Reference

1. Solar System Exploration, https://science.nasa.gov/solar-system/
2. Indian Knowledge System, https://iksindia.org/
3. Rahu, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rahu
4. Ketu (mythology), https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ketu_(mythology)
5. Navagraha, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navagraha
6. Grahana, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grahana/

Abstract

           There are two schools of thought for the concept of sound as revealed from history. According to one concept, sound is caused by release of tiny subatomic particles from matter; propagation of particles through a medium and interaction with other existences at a distance such as the ear of living beings. The second accepted sound is caused by vibration of a source communicated by waves in a medium and capable of affecting any existence at a distance. The above hypotheses stand on different footings which cannot be harmonized to develop a single theory for sound. The reality being one, only one concept of sound is real. The wave concept of sound is well accepted leaving behind the particle concept. At times, reality is suppressed if it is not promoted properly. It is something like an honest client sometimes loses the case due to the weak argument of his pleader. Now phonons (particles) are conceptualized as the quantized units of vibrational energy in solids. The phonons are formally integrated into solid-state physics, describing sound as a quantum mechanical phenomenon in materials. Thus, both particle concept and the wave concept are accepted allowing the dual concept for sound. This author has shown that mechanical waves of sound frequency produced in air by oscillation of a plunger/piston does not produce sound which straight away disagrees with the wave concept of sound. Hence, the particle concept of sound needs to be augmented by realizing additional qualities in sound particles in the light of reality so that the particle theory alone can justify 1) why sound is not heard from outside the ringing bell in vacuum jar and 2) how different phenomena of sound including diffraction and interference can be explained from the particle concept of sound. Quantum Acoustics and the interpretation of solid-state physics on sound conceptualizes hypothetical sound particles as phonons. Thus, the particle concept is inevitable in advance analysis of sound in solid state. If sound particles have natural existence in the structure of solid then it is rational to conceptualize the same instead of formalizing the hypothetical phonon. It is further necessary to identify new qualities of sound particles for understanding interference and diffraction thereby dispensing the duality. The new concept of sound particles as envisaged here carries fractional charge. This paper shows how the sound-wave concept is far from reality and explains why the sound particles produced in vacuum cannot cross the wall of the vacuum chamber. The new particle theory of sound has scope of explaining the diffraction & interference phenomenon of sound and is in harmony with solid state physics.

Key Words: Particle concept of sound, Wave concept of sound, Phonons, Vibrational energy, diffraction, interference, Solid state physics, Quantum Acoustics.

Historical development on concept of sound

• Pythagoras in 6th century BCE associated sound with the movement of objects but did not formalize a particle-based model.
• Democritus in 5th century BCE speculated that all matter, including sound, could consist of tiny particles, hinting at a particulate understanding of various phenomena. 
• Aristotle in 4th century BCE correctly suggested that a sound wave propagates in air through motion of the air. 
• Lucretius in the 1st century BCE described sound as being made up of small, fast-moving particles that interact with air and the ear.
• Vitruvius, in 1st century BCE determined the mechanism of transmission of sound waves.
• Boethius in 6th century AD suggested that the human perception of pitch is related to the physical property of frequency. 
• Marin Mersenne in 1637 studied the vibration of stretched strings; the results of these studies were summarized in the three Mersenne’s laws.
• Galileo Galilei in 1638 identified the role of frequency in determining pitch.
• Pierre Gassendi in the 17th century theorized that sound was transmitted through air via particle impacts, akin to billiard balls colliding.
• René Descartes in 1644 proposed that sound involved the motion of tiny particles in the air. 
• Athanasius Kircher in 1650 made the first bell-in-vacuum experiment and showed sound is not through motion of particles.
• Robert Boyle in 1660 demonstrated that sound requires a medium (air) to travel, confirmed that it is not transmitted in a vacuum.
• Marin Mersenne in 1665 calculated the speed of sound in air, marking the first quantitative analysis of sound waves.
• Christiaan Huygens in 1678 proposed the wave theory of light, indirectly influencing later scientists to consider sound as a wave phenomenon.
• Robert Hooke in 1681 first produced a sound wave of known frequency, using a rotating cog wheel as a measuring device.
• Isaac Newton in 1687 suggested that sound travels as a series of compressions and rarefactions in air but also modeled sound propagation mathematically similar to particle motion.
• Isaac Newton in the 1700s attempted to calculate the speed of sound in air using his laws of mechanics, he supported the idea of sound as a pressure wave.
• Daniel Bernoulli in 1738 explored the idea that sound could result from the motion of air particles in a fluid-like model.
• Jean-Baptiste le Rond d’Alembert in 1747 derived the wave equation, providing a mathematical description of sound waves.
• George Stokes in 1827 refined the understanding of wave propagation in fluids and gases, improving the accuracy of sound speed calculation. 
• Hermann von Helmholtz in the 1850s explored the physics of sound and its perception, introducing resonance and analyzed the harmonics of vibrating systems.

Rejection of the Particle Theory and Acceptance of wave theory

The particle theory of sound was rejected due to several reasons:

1. Interference and Diffraction phenomenon of sound is incompatible with particle motion.
2. Sound reflects and refracts predictably, better explained by wave propagation rather than discrete particles. 
3. Particle theory could not explain why sound requires a medium (air, water, solids) for propagation.
4. Euler and Bernoulli developed mathematical models treating sound as pressure variations in air, matching experimental data more accurately.
5. The development of the wave equation provided a comprehensive framework for predicting sound behaviour.
6. Experiments of Thomas Young and Augustin-Jean Fresnel demonstrated wave interference patterns, solidifying the wave model.
7. Robert Boyle showed, sound could not travel without air, reinforcing the need for a medium, which is well explained by wave theory.

Today, sound is understood as a mechanical wave involving oscillations of particles in a medium without the transport of particles themselves. 

Further Development on Sound 

          While sound is fundamentally accepted as a mechanical wave propagating through a medium. In quantum context, it is described through phonons, demonstrating particle-like behaviour. The wave-particle duality of sound is accepted in fields such as ultrasonic, nanotechnology, and quantum acoustics. 

Why again the particle model of sound at this stage? 

The observed pictures of an object viewed from different angles using visible light, ultraviolet ray and x-ray are different though the object remains the same for different observations. Thus, one cannot draw a complete conclusion on the reality of the object from any single view even though each view of the object is a reality. We need to integrate all views of the object for the comprehensive understanding of the object. This philosophy is applicable in exploring the reality of any object or event. Looking into the history of sound we notice, there are two schools of thought for the science of sound: one assumes sound as made up of small, fast-moving particles that interact with air & the ear and the other presumes sound as a mechanical wave involving oscillations of particles of air medium. These two concepts of sound are of diverse nature; hence it is not possible to unify the concepts for understanding the reality. We cannot accept both the concepts since duality is not the reality of nature. When we fail to perceive the reality of sound in an unseen domain from one single concept, we introduce additional concepts to somehow understand different aspects (phenomena) of sound. This led us to believe, duality of sound is also a reality of nature. Now the wave-particle dual concept has proliferated in physics of sound, light and electrons in atomic structure and became established beyond doubt. On the other hand, the reality of nature is perceived as unchanging truth (without duality) in macro domain science, Vedic science, Vedanta, puranas and Bhagavat Geeta. Hence, to help achieve success in unification of sciences, the dual concept is required to be reduced to a single feasible concept. Thus, it is either the particle theory of sound or the wave theory sound corresponds to reality leaving the other as purely hypothetical. To ascertain the reality, both particle and wave concepts need to be examined properly. It is absolutely necessary to examine the circumstances in which sound particles are not propagated through vacuum before rejecting the particle theory of sound. Similarly, it is necessary to justify why sound is not produced by reciprocation of a piston in an open-ended cylinder or oscillation of an electromagnetic plunger that produces waves of sound-frequency in air before accepting the wave theory of sound. The author has provided justification as to how the sound particles generated inside vacuum cannot enter the wall of vacuum chamber. On the other hand, it is difficult to explain why sound is not produced by simulating forced waves of sound-frequency in air. Since waves in air do not produce sound, the wave theory of sound is not a reality and it should not be pursued for theoretical analysis of sound. It is no less a mystery as to how the erroneous wave theory of sound is capable of explaining diffraction and interference of sound. This is possible only when the frequency parameter of a hypothetical sound wave goes to proxy some intrinsic property of sound particles. This author has identified the new significance of electric charge where charge appears in matter (particles) in non-equilibrium state of mass-space association relative to that of its surrounding. The new concept of charge [1] allows existence of fractional charges in particles of matter. The frequency of sound waves in reality goes to describe the charge potential state of real sound particles. 

Discussion on particle concept of sound

         Sound particles present in the micro structure of solid (interstices of atoms & molecules and in grain boundary) are relatively loosely bonded with the microstructure. The strength of bonding of sound particles varies depending on the nature of microstructure of solid and the position of sound particles in the microstructure which is a material specific property. If a sound responding solid is hammered then the microstructure as well as the surface of solid would vibrate liberating some sound particles from the structure. The released sound particles would enter the air medium and move through the medium making collisions with atoms and molecules of the air medium thereby developing a distribution pattern of number density of sound particles in the vicinity of the sound source. Depending on the position of a sound receiver in the said vicinity, it receives different extent of sound particles thereby records different loudness of sound. The surface-vibration of solid generates longitudinal waves in the adjacent air medium which die down within a short distance from the source due to the damping property of the air medium.  In any case, the distance of propagation of longitudinal sound waves is much less than the range of sound propagation. The diaphragm of a sound receiver vibrates by the impact of sound particles which in turn form waves in air-medium. The waves at source and at the receiving end make an illusion, as if the waves are travelling right from the source up to the reception point without break. 

        In vacuum medium the mean free path is longer for the sound particles hence sound particles would travel faster due to minimum collision with atoms and molecules of the air medium. Then, why do the sound particles emitted from a ringing bell in vacuum do not come out of the chamber? It implies, some unknown phenomenon prevents the entry of sound particles through the walls of the vacuum chamber. In the absence of the knowledge of this unknown phenomenon, the fact could not be justified. This was the primary reason why scientists developed faith in the wave theory of sound. The unknown phenomenon is discussed below.

          Every matter particle/body has an extra-nuclear space structure surrounding the particle/body due to mass-space attraction [2]. This phenomenon is well revealed in the celestial body system and atomic system [3]. The same phenomenon also holds good for sound particles. The size of the extranuclear space structure of sound particles is a function of both mass of the nucleus and background space density (pressure), similar to the size of a balloon that depends on internal pressure and external pressure. The sound particles released from the electric bell in vacuum have enlarged extranuclear structure much larger than that in atmospheric air. The solid wall of the vacuum chamber has micro-porosity due to interatomic gaps. The extranuclear space structure of sub-micro sound particles in atmospheric air are of small size which is less than the dimension of micro porosity of the solid wall of the vacuum chamber. Hence the sound particles easily pass through the wall of the vacuum chamber when air is not evacuated from the chamber. But when the air of the chamber is evacuated, the size of the extranuclear space structure of sound particles becomes very large, exceeding the dimension of porosity in the solid wall. The sound particles with increased extranuclear space structure cannot pass through the wall of the vacuum chamber. Hence, no sound of a bell is heard from outside the vacuum chamber. Therefore, the sound produced by an electric bell inside the vacuum chamber propagates up to the wall but fails to penetrate the wall. Hence, no sound is heard from outside the chamber. This gives the misconception that sound does not travel through vacuum. 

Sound is not propagated through wave

           All forms of solid have microstructure composed of micro atomic particles. The micro domain particles also have micro-microstructure composed of micro-micro domain particles (light particles) [4] Many subatomic particles below the range of known microparticles and above the range of micro-micro particles (light particles) have placement in interatomic space in the complex structure of solid. Some of these particles fall in the range of sound particles. Depending on the nature of the microstructure and locational sites of sound particles in the micro structure of solid, the bond-strength and charge state of sound particles have different values. 

         If we hammer a bell-metal, the microstructure of bell metal vibrates at different frequencies depending on the impact of the hammer. Due to the structural vibration, the surface of the bell-metal also vibrates. The vibration of the surface of the bell-metal interacts with the air medium in contact with the surface forming waves in the medium. Due to impact of hammer on bell-metal the following dynamic phenomena occurs:

1. The sound particles are released from the structure of the bell-metal and move into the medium.
2. Waves are formed in the air medium by interaction of vibrating surfaces of the solid which are short lived.
3. We hear sound while remaining in the air medium at a distance from the source. 

          One class of thought is that propagation of sound occurs by motion of sound particles through the air medium and interacts with the ear at a distance. The other class of thought is that the wave formed in the medium by the bell metal propagates in the medium and the wave interacts with the ear. The reason why the sound particles produced by the electric bell in the vacuum chamber cannot come out of the chamber has already been discussed. In fact, there is no problem for the motion of sound particles through vacuum medium but faces problems in entering into the wall of the vacuum chamber. To re-establish the reality of sound waves a different experimental setup is designed (Fig.1).

Abstract

Angular momentum is crucial in analysing the motion of orbital bodies. It explains how forces and torques affect the rotation of objects. In integral systems with torsional integrity, angular momentum is conserved provided there is no exchange of angular momentum with external bodies. For example, ice skaters pull in their arms to spin more. Angular momentum principles are used in the design of rotating machinery, such as turbines, flywheels and gyroscopes, etc. ensuring stability and performance. Athletes optimize their movements for better performance in gymnastics, diving, and figure skating. Angular momentum is essential in controlling the motion of robotic arms and other mechanisms involving rotation. Hence, conservation of angular momentum is a reality beyond doubt for systems having torsional linkage of component systems. But undue extrapolation of conservation of angular momentum in systems where it is not feasible leads to violation of the principle of conservation of angular momentum. An orbital body in the solar system does not have a torque transfer link with the central body hence the angular momentum is always zero with respect to the central body irrespective of different orbital distance and orbital velocity. The fluid dynamics model of the solar system does not require the angular momentum to justify the change of velocity at different orbital distances (Kepler’s Law). The wheeling extra nuclear space structure of the central body has different spatial tangential velocity given by v= √(GM/ R) and the same is discussed by this author in article-3, issue-3, volume-2 of this journal. The orbital body under equal and opposite centripetal force (gravity) and centrifugal force floats in the spinning extra nuclear space fluid of the central body and acquires the velocity of its adjacent space fluid. We, however, unknowingly ignore the reality by ignoring the role of space fluid and try to correlate the variation of orbital velocity with orbital distance from hypothetical conservation of angular momentum which is not feasible for orbital bodies without having a torque transfer link.

Key Words: Orbital bodies, Kepler’s Law, Angular momentum, Fluid dynamic model, Charge velocity, Extra nuclear space structure, Centripetal force, Centrifugal force.

Discussion

If a celestial body passes nearby another celestial body the moving celestial body cannot produce a torsional effect on the central body without a torque transfer link hence it has no scope in exchanging angular momentum between the moving celestial body and the stationary celestial body. The consideration of angular momentum of the orbital celestial body about the central celestial body without a torque transfer link is purely a hypothetical case. Gravitational attraction of the central body on an orbital celestial body acts along the line joining the bodies. Therefore, the gravity of the central body cannot produce tangential acceleration of the orbital body which is at right angles to radial acceleration. We make use of this phenomenon in solving problems of projectiles on the surface of the earth. For example, a bullet fired horizontally (tangential to the earth) from the top of a tall building maintains its constant horizontal velocity without acceleration. On the other hand, the bullet accelerates in the vertical direction due to gravity of the earth. The above consideration is used for calculating the horizontal range of the bullet. We don’t consider conservation of angular momentum about the center of the earth. If we consider conservation of angular momentum then the horizontal velocity of the bullet would increase with decrease of height of the bullet in its flight and introduce error in the evaluation of horizontal range of the bullet. An orbital celestial body does not have intelligence nor have memory of its orbit to retrace the path. At any instant, the orbital body has only tangential velocity, gravitational attraction and centrifugal force. Hence, the path traced by the orbital body can be determined only from its prevailing velocity and acceleration due to gravity and centrifugal force.

An orbital body in a circular path experiences both gravity (centripetal force) and centrifugal force.  The orbital body in circular motion experiences a radially outward pull to restore its position along the path of inertial motion which produces the centrifugal force. Hence an orbital celestial body at certain orbital distance and tangential velocity, can have its centrifugal force equal and opposite to gravity where the orbital body would orbit in a circular path by the whirling space fluid of the central body without causing centripetal or centrifugal acceleration. However, if somehow the orbital body is displaced towards the central body, gravity would predominate over the centrifugal force and the predominance would go on increasing till it meets the central body. On the other hand, if the orbital body is displaced outwardly the centrifugal force would predominate and take the body away from the circular orbit overcoming gravity of the central body. But this doesn’t happen in reality. Observation shows that, tangential velocity increases when the orbital body comes closer to the central body and decreases when the orbital body goes away from the central body. It is, as if, conservation of angular momentum plays a part in the above phenomenon. The fact that gravitational force is at right angle to tangential velocity, the centripetal acceleration due to gravity cannot increase the tangential velocity. Therefore, increase of tangential velocity when the body is accelerated toward the central body and decrease of tangential velocity when the body is accelerated outwardly need justification from proper dynamics. This author has shown how the whirling physical space fluid of the extra-nuclear structure of the central celestial body reorients the velocity gain by radial acceleration in tangential direction that justifies Kepler’s observational law [1]. In the existing concept, angular momentum quantifies “rotational influence” without requiring a torsional link because it is a purely kinematic and dynamic property that arises from the relationship between the motion of the mass, its position and the reference axis. The concept of angular momentum has no meaning without a torsional link; therefore, the concept is purely hypothetical. Even if the mathematical quantification of rotational influence is giving results by assuming conservation of angular momentum, it is not enough to accept the same as reality since the very concept of angular momentum is lost without a torsional link. Then it becomes obvious that some unknown mechanism is operating in orbital dynamics that justifies the correlation between tangential velocity and radial distance. If the reality remains hidden to us then we can only justify the change of tangential velocity of an orbital body with orbital distance by making unrealistic hypotheses such as conservation of angular momentum. One can realize the significance of the above statement from the following example. 

Our early concept was that the sun goes around the earth which gave rise to mathematical quantification of the length of the day. But now we know the reality that the earth rotates and revolves around the sun and the new knowledge also produces the same result on the length of the day. Any concept yielding result cannot be considered a reality if the concept is not feasible. A real phenomenon not only yields results but also has to be feasible.

The concept of conservation of angular momentum of orbital celestial bodies yields results but angular momentum of an orbital body without a torque transfer link is not feasible hence not a reality. Therefore, it is rational to look for the exact dynamics that predicts the orbital velocity in a realistic manner without involving conservation of angular momentum. If angular momentum does not change in the orbital dynamics then it is, as good as, not having a role in the dynamics. The new concept of fluid dynamics in the solar system is realistic and explains the motion of orbital bodies and makes the angular momentum redundant. The hypothetical concept of angular momentum without a rigid torsional link is not a valid consideration. This may be realized from the following example. Consider a nucleus body of mass ‘M’ and an orbital body of mass ‘m’. Both masses M and m are connected by flexible thread of length ‘l’ that can only execute the pull of ‘M’ on ‘m’ but cannot produce a torque on m about M. Hence, in the absence of torque transmission link, the tangential velocity of orbital body cannot be changed by variation of gravitational pull from central body. Hence, the variation of tangential velocity by conservation of angular momentum is purely hypothetical and not applicable for orbital dynamics. The increase of orbital velocity of the celestial body with decrease of orbital distance and decrease of orbital velocity with increase of orbital distance is derivable from realistic fluid dynamics [2]. In the lack of perception of fluid dynamics, the above phenomenon is attributed to hypothetical- ‘conservation of angular momentum’. However, the very feasibility of conservation of angular momentum is questionable.

An orbital body at any instance has a position in the orbit and orbital velocity which is tangential to the orbit. The present consideration of conservation of angular momentum about the central body is only hypothetical in the absence of a torque transfer link which is an essential requirement for angular momentum. The gravitational acceleration is radially inward therefore having a little influence on tangential acceleration. Further, an orbital body is a non-living thing hence it cannot remember its orbital path like a living being. Thus, for the orbital body, the instantaneous dynamic parameters (velocity) and the external forces (gravity and centrifugal force) make its next move progressively generating its path which may lead to a closed orbit (circle or ellipse) or spiral-in/spiral-out the central body. The nature of gravity and centrifugal force cannot provide stability to orbital bodies without an auto adjustable nature of force. The author has discussed a new celestial charge interaction elsewhere [3]. The negative celestial charge of an orbital body (say, the earth) is reduced in its movement towards the sun by receiving more quantity of positively charged solar radiation (photons) carrying photonic charge due to greater solid angle subtended by the planet (Fig.1).

Abstract

Space is now considered as a physical medium capable of interacting with matter. Thus, any relative motion of the orbital body in the space medium is subject to loss of the speed of motion of the orbital body due to the resistance offered by the space medium. But the orbital bodies maintain their state of motion indefinitely. There is an absolute need of continuous motive force for the perpetual motion of the celestial bodies. As of today, the only known gravitational interaction in the solar system is unable to provide the required motive force. The newly introduced non-electric charge concept is helpful in providing the required motive force from celestial charge (non-electric) interaction. The paper discusses the celestial charge interaction in providing the motive force for different motions such as the orbital motion, rotational motion and oscillation of the axis of the orbital body relative to the central body. The celestial body accelerates in the above motions by celestial charge interactions against the resistance of the space medium. The resistance of the space medium increases rapidly with the increase of velocity of the celestial body thereby the motions of the celestial body stabilize at different specific speeds where the effective motive force becomes zero. In this manner the motions of the celestial body are perpetual. 

Key Words: Celestial bodies, Perpetual rotation, Oscillation of axis, Motive force, non-electric charge concept, Celestial charge interactions, Resistance of space medium.

Introduction

The celestial bodies of the solar system have different speeds of rotation. Neither do we visualize a driving torque derived from gravitational interaction for the rotational motion nor do we realize the resisting torque from empty space for slowing down the speed of rotation. It is presumed that the speed of rotation of the celestial body in the solar system developed during the formation process of the solar system is simply continuing due to the mass moment of inertia. Theoretically, the presumption appears sound. But in reality, the space is physical and capable of rendering propagation of high frequency light waves and forming space-time curvature that guides the motions of celestial bodies. Hence, the physical space can as well offer resistance to different motions of orbital bodies and slow down their motions. Thus, it is rational to think of a constant motive torque for rotation of celestial bodies which would overcome the resistance to rotational motion thereby maintaining a constant speed of rotation. The author has described the new concept of space, where space itself is physical and contains space matter particles in finer domains [1] [2]. Thus, it is reasonable to think of the existence of the resistive torque that would slow down the speed of rotation in the absence of a motive torque to overcome the resistive torque. Since the speed of rotation is not slowing down, it establishes the existence of a hidden driving torque. Gravity is the only known force interaction for the dynamics of the solar system but gravity acts along the line joining the centers of celestial bodies. Hence gravity cannot produce a turning moment for an orbital celestial body to cause rotation about its own axis. It becomes obvious that some non-gravity force is producing the turning moment to maintain a constant speed of rotation. The new non-electric charge (celestial charge) interaction produces the required turning moment for rotation and oscillation of the orbital body. Hence, both gravity and celestial charge interaction are inevitable in working out the dynamics of celestial bodies in the solar system. The celestial charge interaction has a role in evaluation of centripetal force. In this new consideration the centripetal force is a combination of gravity and celestial charge force. The force of gravity is invariant whereas the celestial charge interaction is a variable force depending on the surface charge state of celestial bodies. 

Non-electric charge interaction for rotation of orbital body

We are conversant in the electric charge interaction of particles where electrons and protons are electric charge carriers. As of today, we have no knowledge as to how charge appears in fundamental particles. This author has given a new understanding of electric charge appearing in micro particles due to non-equilibrium mass-space association in relation to the equilibrium mass-space association of its background. Matters in the background having equilibrium space holding behave neutral among them but interact with the micro particles having non-equilibrium space holding. The micro particles in non-equilibrium mass-space state are in active state or in charge state. Hence, charge is not a separate entity other than the state property of matter (mass-space integral system). Matter exists in different domains (macro domain, micro domain, micro-micro domain etc…). Matter in any domain is a mass-space integral system therefore the concept of charge is extendable to all domains to understand other non-electric charges. The cause of charge remaining the same in matters of all domains the strength and range of interaction becomes different depending on density of mass/space and the domain scale change which classify the charge as electric and non-electric. More specifically the charge in the micro domain is known as electric charge and the non-electric charge in micro-micro domain & macro domain are newly introduced as photonic charge and celestial charge respectively. Charge being a non-equilibrium state of mass and space, a charged matter may have less space holding or more space holding than the equilibrium space holding per unit of mass. The mass rich proton is in the state of positive charge and the space rich electron is in the state of negative charge. The negative and positive electric charge don’t relate to absolute property but only a relative state property of mass space ratio. Following this concept of charge the mass rich celestial bodies possess positive celestial charge and space rich celestial bodies carry negative celestial charge. Similarly, the mass rich photons carry positive photonic charge and space rich photons carry negative photonic charge. In the new charge concept the positive and negative charges are of the same type and charge interaction takes place only at charge potential difference. When mass rich micro particles or micro-micro particles are absorbed in a macro celestial body, it makes the surface of the celestial body rich with the mass component making the surface of the celestial body positively charged. On the other hand, when space rich micro particles or micro–micro particles are absorbed in a macro celestial body, makes the surface of the celestial body rich with space components making the surface of the celestial body negatively charged. The emission of mass rich and space rich micro particles or micro-micro particles from the surface of a celestial body changes the celestial charge state of the surface of the celestial body. The gravitational interaction acts through the line joining the mass through the celestial bodies, whereas the line of action of charge force depends on the local surface charge state of the celestial bodies. The line of action of local celestial charge interaction is generally off centered to center of mass. Hence, differential charge attraction has scope to produce turning moment on orbital celestial body.

Constant acting hidden torque for perpetual rotation of orbital bodies

The direction of rotation is initiated by the differential turning moment due to the thrust of spinning space fluid of the central body [3]. The thrust becomes insignificant when the tangential velocity of the orbital body approaches the tangential velocity of the spinning fluid. But the resistance to rotational motion of the celestial body increases with increasing speed of rotation. To counter the resistance of space fluid additional effort (torque) is required and this is provided by the new celestial charge interaction. 

In the new concept, celestial bodies carry celestial charge and light particles carry photonic charge. The sun carries positive celestial charge and planets carry negative celestial charge [4]. The negative celestial charge of the surface of a planet reduces by absorbing positively charged solar radiation particles (photons) [4]. The negative celestial charge state of the surface of the planet increases by releasing positively charged photons (earthly radiation) and receiving the negatively charged background radiation. The thermal and electric potentials of the surface of a planet are measures of the celestial charge state of a planet. Planets receive solar radiation on the sun facing side of the planet. At any instant, only one hemisphere of a planet receives sunlight which is referred to as day time part of the planet and the other hemisphere without sunlight is referred to as night time part of the planet. The morning hemisphere has a half day portion and half night portion.  The surface of the planet receiving the solar radiation absorbs a fraction of it thereby reducing the negative celestial charge state of the surface. During night, the solar radiation does not reach the surface hence the celestial charge state of the surface of the planet becomes more and more negative with laps of time due to loss of positively charged photons by terrestrial radiation. This makes the negative celestial charge of the surface of the morning hemisphere more than that of the evening hemisphere. Hence, the charge attraction of the sun to the morning hemisphere is more than that of the evening hemisphere (Fig.1). The unbalanced celestial charge attraction produces a torque on the planet to rotate about its own axis where the morning hemisphere moves towards the sun resulting in anticlockwise torque for anticlockwise rotation of the planet. This torque is present in all times and it goes to counter the resistance to rotational motion of the planet thus the rotation of planets is perpetual. 

Abstract

Often, we come across limitations and deviations of manmade natural laws. Nature does not make any preference or deviation of its universal norm. Limitation of universal law appears when the man-made law is deviated away from the reality of nature. Lack of proper perception to the physical state of space and its role in the dynamics of celestial bodies results in limitation of gravity base dynamics in explaining the excess motion of Mercury at perihelion hence requires alternative justification for the same. The extra nuclear space structure associated with celestial body spines for all rotating celestial bodies and has different spatial velocity under the action of gravity and centrifugal force. The new fluid dynamics operating in the solar system has scope to explain the excess motion of Mercury at perihelion without interpretation of general relativity. Thus, the excess motion is a normal motion in fluid dynamics consideration. The new celestial charge interaction has also a role in the dynamics of the solar system. The consideration of celestial charge interaction, over and above gravity, is quite successful in justifying the perpetual motions of celestial bodies in the solar system therefore has a role in justifying the excess motion of Mercury. This article discusses the likely cause of excess motion of mercury at perihelion by considering the fluid dynamics and celestial charge interaction. 

Key Words: Solar system, Celestial bodies, Motion of mercury at perihelion, fluid dynamics, Celestial charge interaction, action of gravity, Centrifugal force.

Discussion

An orbital body with equal and opposite forces (gravity and centrifugal force) remains in a floating state and acquires its motion from the spinning fluid where the tangential velocity of the orbital body attains the spinning velocity of its adjacent space fluid. If, somehow, the orbital body is displaced inwardly from its metastable circular orbit then gravity would become more than the centrifugal force and the orbital body would accelerate under the differential force (gravity-centripetal). The increasing rate of inward acceleration would have led the orbital body to fall unto the central body but this doesn’t happen because the radial velocity of the orbital body due to radial acceleration is redirected in tangential direction by the sweeping action of spinning extra nuclear space fluid of the central body thereby increasing the tangential velocity of the orbital body. Hence, the spinning motion of the space fluid has a vital role in reorienting the radial velocity of the orbital body in tangential direction. In this way, the spinning space fluid of the rotating central body is instrumental in justifying the assumption of conservation of angular momentum in close orbit. Again, when the orbital body is displaced radially outward, the centrifugal force would increase to cause centrifugal acceleration but due to the drag from the slow spinning velocity of space fluid of the central body, the orbital velocity drops. Here again, the reduction of velocity justifies conservation of angular momentum. In view of the above fact, any orbital body is subject to a radial oscillation about the metastable circular orbit in the orbital plane. The periodic revolution in the metastable circular orbit when clubbed with a matching period of radial oscillation about the metastable circular orbit makes the elliptical orbit stable. The orbital planes of orbital bodies make small acute angles with the equatorial plane of the central body which imply the orbital body makes an oscillation perpendicular to the equatorial plane of the central body. The periodic revolution of the orbital body when clubbed with the perpendicular oscillation results in the inclination of the orbital plane with the equatorial plane. Similar to reorientation of radial velocity in tangential direction by the spinning space fluid of the central body, the linear oscillatory velocity perpendicular to equatorial plane also get reoriented in tangential direction thereby resulting additional tangential velocity. Thus, the resulting tangential velocity is more than that predictable by considering the radial oscillation of the orbital body alone using conservation of angular momentum. This explains the excess motion of Mercury at perihelion.

All celestial bodies have extra nuclear space structures with charge polarized shell features [1]. The orbital bodies have different fixed orbital distances conforming to the shell position in the charge polarized shells of extranuclear space structure thereby the orbits are discrete similar to the discrete nature of orbits in the atomic system [2]. Though the charge shells are spherical in a uniform background space potential, all orbital bodies are housed in the potential gradient of extranuclear space structure of the central body that deforms to spheroid shape. The internal charge-polarized spherical shells are proportionately deformed. Thus, the extra nuclear space structures of orbital bodies have spheroid shape shell structures. Hence the orbital motion of planets and satellites within the spheroid shells are elliptical. The orbital bodies orbiting in an inclined plane execute oscillation perpendicular to the equatorial plane. When the orbital body is swept by the spinning space fluid the velocity component normal to equatorial plane is swept by the spinning space fluid thus increasing the tangential velocity in excess of the consideration of angular momentum. Orbital bodies with larger orbital inclination and higher speed of revolution have greater oscillation velocity perpendicular to the equatorial plane. Mercury has very high orbital inclination and small orbital period therefore most likely to exhibit excess motion at perihelion compared to other planets.

Conclusion

The effect of spinning space fluid has a great role in justifying different aspects of orbital motion and has scope explaining the excess motion of mercury at perihelion by proper analysis of fluid dynamics. The fluid dynamic analysis may not require additional theories to justify the same.

Reference 

1. https://philosophyofnature.org.in/natural-electric-charge-structure-in-earth-and-its-atmosphere.

2. https://philosophyofnature.org.in/extrapolation-of-bodes-lawtowards-unravelling-the-mysteries-of-the-solar-system.