Abstract

Though Over 1400 sites of Indus Valley civilization have been discovered and there is a rich collection of archaeological information, the historians and archaeologists have no clue about the rulers and the system of governance of the settlements. This paper shows that the best sources of information about the rulers are the Shastras namely the epic Mahabharat and the Puranas. The chronology of the Shastras neatly explains the phases of the civilization like consolidation phase, mature phase and the localisation phase. 

However, the chronology of the rulers given in the Shastras does not conform to the chronology of the rulers given in the official version of ancient Indian history. The reason for the discrepancy has to be the matter of a separate paper.

Key words: Panchang, Kalyugabda, Indus ValleyCivilisation, Harappan rulers, Mahabharata and Puranas.

Introduction

The Indus Valley Civilization is one of the oldest civilizations in human history. It is said to be a contemporary of ancient Egyptian civilization and nearly 1,000 years after the earliest Sumerian cities of Mesopotamia. Though the earliest settlements of Indus Valley Civilization are dated to be of about 7000 BC, its periodisation is made as follows.

1. Consolidation phase from about 3300 BC till about 2600 BC
2. Mature phase from about 2600 BC till about 1900 BC.
3. Localisation phase from about 1900 BC till about 1300 BC

Over 1400 Indus Valley civilisation sites have been discovered, of which 925 sites are in India and 475 in Pakistan spread over more than a million square kilometres [386,000 square miles] and extends throughout northwest India, Pakistan and parts of Afghanistan.

This really makes it one of the largest ‘Old World’ civilizations in terms of geographic extent.

It is not known who the king of the Indus Valley was. The limited knowledge of the existence of a king is due to an artefact called ‘the Priest King’ which is the iconic representation of the Indus Valley Civilization. It is not known exactly who he was or the role he played in society.

The second theory posits that there was no single ruler, but a number of them representing each of the urban centres, including Mohenjo-Daro, Harappa, and other communities. Finally, experts have theorized that the Indus Valley Civilization had no rulers as we understand them, with everyone enjoying equal status. The simplest way to arrive at the correct answer is to refer to the Panchang.

The year KALIYUGABDA 5126 began on 9th April 2024 AD. Thus, it was started by the rulers who ruled about 5126 years ago which was the time of Indus Valley Civilization. The fact that KALIYUGABDA has remained pivotal to Indian culture for more than five millennia shows the stronghold of those rulers over the entire civilization.

Kaliyugabda

Therefore, it is important to recall, “Who started the calendar of KALIYUGABDA?”

It is common knowledge that Kaliyuga started when Bhagwan Krishna left his mortal body and King Yudhishthira abdicated in favour of King Parikshit the grandson of Arjun.

From a careful and critical examination of the descriptions of Shanti Parva, Anushasan Parva and Ashvamedha Parva of Mahabharat as well as the descriptions of other Puranas it is clear that after the battle of Kurukshetra the Pandavas had become the paramount power of entire India along with the adjoining territories and their suzerainty was accepted by all the other rulers. This tradition continued during the rule of the descendants of King Parikshit.

The relationship of the descendants of king Parikshit with all the other kings in and around India was like the relationship of the British crown with the princely states in and around India from 1858 to 1947.

The “consolidation phase” of Indus Valley Civilization started around 5000 years before today. The consolidation was possible because of the stronghold of the rulers of the dynasty over the entire civilization and other parts of India.

Kings of the Pandava Dynasty 

The consolidation and mature phases of Indus valley civilization flourished during the millennium of uninterrupted peace following the holocaust of Mahabharata war. 

The most important ruling dynasty of the area during the time was the dynasty of King Parikshit.

Subsequent to the war the capital was shifted from Hastinapur to Kaushambi.

But in course of time their influence progressively declined till the time of the end of the dynasty, when their influence was limited only to the small area around their capital Kaushambi. The kings of the dynasty after the Mahabharata war were as follows:

1. Yudhishthira ruled from 3138 BC to 3102 BC
2. Parikshit
3. Janmejaya
4. Shatanika
5. Aswamedhadatta
6. Adhisimha Krishna
7. Nishakshu: Ganga flooded Hastinapur. Capital shifted to Kaushambi
8. Ushna
9. Chitraratha
10. Suchiradha
11. Vrishnimanta
12. Sushena
13. Suneedha
14. Nrupegakshu
15. Sukhibala
16. Pariplava
17. Sunaya
18. Medhavi
19. Ripunjaya
20. Urva
21. Thigma
22. Brihadratha (Contemporary of Bimbisara of Magadha)
23. Kasudana
24. Shatanika II
25. Udayana
26. Kihinara
27. Dandapani
28. Niramitra
29. Kshemaka

According to the Puranas King Kshemaka lost the war with Mahapadmanand. During the period of more than a millennium long paramountcy of Pandav dynasty, uniformity was established all over India such as uniform length measurements, weights and time measurements in addition to uniform urban planning, road networks, drainage system etc. This uniformity was strengthened through imperial encouragement to religious tourism that is known as Theerthatan. In fact, the foundation of modern Hinduism was laid during the consolidation phase of IVC.

Localisation Phase

The archaeologists believe that around 1900 BC the mature phase was giving way to the localisation phase. It means that the stronghold of Pandavas was being lost and the local kings had become independent of the central rule. 

The most powerful of the emerging kingdoms was Magadha with its capital at Giribraja.

The first millennium of Kaliyuga was one of the best periods of Indian history.

The deterioration of the society started after the rise of the Nanda dynasty of Magadha Empire when India got divided into many independent mutually hostile warring kingdoms. The people blamed it on Kaliyuga.

Most of the Puranas available now were written or revised during that period of degeneration. The Puranas reflect the public sentiment of the degenerate period of Kaliyuga.

The Puranas state that King Mahapadmanand was coronated at Rajagriha (Rajgir) in the year 1504 years after the birth of King Parikshit which, according to the Panchang, was in 3138 BC.

Thus, according to the Panchang and the Puranas King Yudhishthira and his dynasty ruled from 3138 BC as the paramount rulers of India and the adjoining areas till the rise of the Nanda dynasty of Magadha Empire in 1634 BC.

Conclusion

There is evidence of settlement in the Indus valley area as early as 7000 BCE. 

However, The Indus Valley Civilization is generally separated into three phases:

1. Consolidation phase from about 3300 BC till about 2600 BC
2. Mature phase from about 2600 BC till about 1900 BC.
3. Localisation phase from about 1900 BC till about 1300 BC.

Chronology of Kaliyugabda indicates that from about 3300 BC till 3100 BC was the period of rise of the civilisation described in Mahabharat culminating in the unified rule of India from about 3100 BC resulting in consolidation which was complete by about 2600 BC leading to the mature phase.

By about 1900 BC the stronghold of the central rulers appears to have slackened leading to the localisation phase finally resulting in the end of Pandav dynasty soon after 1634 BC.

Reference

1. Sir Mortimer Wheeler: The Indus Civilization, third Edition.

1. Cartwright, M. World History Encyclopaedia (2015), Chavin Civilization” Chavin Civilization – World History Encyclopaedia.

1. Mark, J. World History Encyclopaedia (2020), “Indus Valley Civilization” https://www.worldhistory.org/Indus_Valley_Civilization.

1. Stephanie, V. Harappa.com (2014), “The First Images of the Announcement: The Illustrated London News” https://www.harappa.com/blog/first-images-announcement-illustrated-london-news.

1. Mengal, M. World History Encyclopaedia (2020), “Priest-king from Mohenjo-Daro” https://www.worldhistory.org/image/12858/priest-king-from-mohenjo-daro.

1. Handwerk, B. Smithsonian Magazine (2019), “Rare Ancient DNA Provides Window into a 5,000-Year-Old South Asian Civilization”.https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/rare-ancient-dna-south-asia-reveals-complexities-little-known-civilization-180973053.

1. Shinde, V. et al. “An Ancient Harappan Genome Lacks Ancestry from Steppe Pastoralists or Iranian Farmers.” Cell, 2019.

Abatract

Just as it is almost unimaginable or extremely difficult for an ant to understand the nature of the particle inside the Singularity of the black hole, similarly, it is extremely difficult for us to understand the existence beyond the physical realm of the universe, but it’s not impossible. However, this human consciousness and the consciousness of every living being is a part of that eternity. Therefore, just as we humans are familiar with our civilization, in the same way, every celestial object in the universe is also familiar with its own civilization and maintains a bond of energy among them, which governs the functioning of the physical universe & also shows the interconnection between them. Today, we want to share with others the experience of consciousness, which begins when the form of physicality ends, and the original form of the universe is revealed before us. This form has neither an end nor a beginning; it eternally remains the cause of the universe’s existence, like an Eternal space. Today, through our Astronomical scriptures, we will explore a new source of Truth. In this, we will search for the presence of life beyond zero energy according to thermodynamics, where the modern value of zero is not what we understand, but something that goes beyond infinity.

Keywords: Consciousness, Form of Physicality, Eternal space, Life beyond zero, Universe.

Introduction

This universe, which is filled with complete complexity, where countless transformations of energy constantly occur, there are many such laws in the phases and states of the universe that change almost countless times at every step, because complexity is the hallmark of our physical universe. Today, we are going to research a similar topic, where we will try to connect some laws of thermodynamics from places where neither its discoverer nor today’s science has thought of, but the answer certainly lies in our astronomical scriptures. This is a very interesting topic from scientific perspectives, as it deals with the truth. And as we all know, if there are any laws, they are limited to a certain stage or event, and if we try to find the ultimate truth through those laws, it is not possible. Even if we experience that truth, it automatically breaks the limitations of those laws and takes on a new form. Yes, we are now moving towards a new discovery where we will discuss the existence of the universe, starting from where physicality ends. Today, our research will begin with the second and third laws of thermodynamics, where we will present a deep analysis of the laws. In this, we will have to connect with the ultimate truth of astronomical scriptures and science, because the knowledge of thousands of years, when accumulated in a verse, becomes priceless and equivalent to ultimate knowledge. We will discuss that perspective today. We will try to understand the existence of life beyond zero energy according to the laws of thermodynamics. We will try to present evidence from our scriptures and practical observations as well. Let’s move towards that ultimate truth with some questions and try to present a new idea. The first question that arises in this topic is, is life possible beyond 0 Kelvin. If possible, what is its nature and how does it indicate a new beginning from where our everything becomes zero? According to classical science, 0 Kelvin is absolute zero, and the entropy of a perfect crystal approaches a constant minimum. However, if this is the case, we should consider those aspects of the universe that we have not yet comprehended. It is not impossible to detect dark energy, nor is it impossible to understand entities like the singularity of a black hole but the truth is that we have accepted certain laws as ultimate principles, which only work up to physical observation. Life is there in every object, life is not limited to humans or living beings alone. Even a stone vibrates and emits energy as it always happens in the supreme Cosmic World with its fundamental cosmic energy. If such an object has a control mechanism to change its form then it gets life and becomes alive.

Modern Limitations and a New Beginning

These are the laws of thermodynamics that create curiosity about the presence of life beyond zero Kelvin.

The second law of thermodynamics states that in any kind of natural thermodynamic process, the total entropy of a system and its surroundings always increases. Entropy is simply a measure of disorder or randomness. This law states that energy transformations are not totally efficient, and some energy is always lost as heat.

Δ𝑆_univ > 0

And the third law discusses that as the temperature of any system approaches absolute zero (0 Kelvin), the entropy of a perfect crystal approaches a constant minimum.

lim Δ𝑆 = 0

T→0

This equation states that as the temperature (T) approaches absolute zero (0 Kelvin), the change in entropy Δ𝑆 of a system approaches zero.

These are some laws of thermodynamics, but will they work in a place where there is no physicality but there is certainly a diversity of energy? One thing we must remember, which we discussed in the introduction, is what life really is.

Every existence is alive and has life, which can control itself and has the ability to change its form and nature in any state. All these existences have life, whether it is a pebble or even fluctuations. And here we have to study the presence of life that is beyond even zero energy. And by bringing the laws of thermodynamics here, we just want to convey one message that any law of the universe, no matter what it is, always remains limited to an event or stage.

Because the energy and particles, whose transformed forms we have observed through some device to create these laws, when they enter another environment, they will try to completely change their nature and form to adjust to that stage. When we experience those same particles or energy again in another transformed form, we call it a mystery. Then questions arise about the existing law of matters. The truth is that any law, no matter what it is, remains limited to an event or stage where it can be easily applicable but it cannot be considered as the complete truth and may not be perfect with the view of cosmic events.

Let’s try to understand this with an example. Whenever a particle travels through our Earth or space, we can easily understand its form, the energy acting on it, and the speed accompanying it. Let’s assume this particle is a photon particle. According to these observations, if we create laws, there is nothing wrong with it. However, modern science today will create some laws based on its detected speed and nature and will call these laws and speed a universal constant, as the speed of light carried by photons.

We can say this with confidence because we have noticed, when these same photon particles enter the    singularity of a black hole, then there is a big question about the universal constant and the principles of thermodynamics. Those can apply in limited ordinary space. If those are truly universal constants, also could work in these small celestial events of the universe. But what happens? We are all well aware of the results. Our point is that when relativity, current quantum gravity, and many scientific laws, subjects, and concepts do not apply in such a place, why don’t they say those do not apply in all situations. Then the concept, prediction of the constant speed of light only applies to the situations of general and special relativity studied.

In this physical state, the speed of light is supreme, but when we consider light to be supreme beyond the events described by relativity, we will only get disappointment, as we have been getting queries till now. It is still not just the singularity of a black hole, but what we call dark energy today, we have not been able to understand it properly till now because its form changes every moment, and perhaps at a speed greater than light, because that energy has become so intense that it can change its nature and form at different stages or environments at faster speed. This is the only reason we have not been able to understand dark energy as we have been trying to understand it. We are not saying that light does not work at a constant speed, nor that the law of thermodynamics is wrong. We would like to say that every thesis and its author represented the events according to their perspective, analysis and introduced the laws based on the nature found in those events or states, and they are limited to those observed events or states only.

In our opinion, the speed of light is a restricted speed that is limited to the physical nature of the universe. The question is why is the speed of light only this much? The answer is that to maintain physicality in nature, the speed of light is limited here. If something goes beyond this, it will never interact with physical fundamentals. We can see a similar case in events like dark energy, which always exists but our calculations, devices, and even the consciousness of modern people fall under the speed of light and some physical laws. This is why, when a little energy or matter changes its form, we get confused and start exploring the deep state, and unfortunately, we call those phases a mystery. This is similar to the happenings during the inception of the universe. Its scientific explanation still appears confusing and dark, not clear. They say, “If we haven’t seen it, it doesn’t exist, and if we have seen it, it is everywhere.” Well, we will discuss this in successive communications.

Considering all these things, we gain clarity on our subject, and that is, the eternity (the eternal space of fundamental cosmic energy) we mistakenly understand today as merely the quantum fluctuations of a zero energy field which is not limited to that state alone. In fact, if we want to explain it in one statement, it would be: “This is the foundation of the existence of the universe, holding every form together.” As we discussed earlier, due to our limited analysis, we think that nothing can exist in any state after zero, so it is obvious that it would be some small vibration or fluctuations that falls under absolute zero, and that is what we have named quantum fluctuations. This is our biggest misfortune or misunderstanding because it is a particle that, after 0 Kelvin, completely changes its form and nature to transform its energy into that state beyond understandable at absolute zero.

But we try to understand it, as having become zero and there is no physical movement happening in it. So let’s declare it as absolute zero. But in reality, that energy and particle only change its form and remain in their altered form and nature even beyond 0 Kelvin. And this is the form that exists in every existence, from a particle to various types of energy, which ultimately leaves this physical environment after 0 Kelvin and comes into its eternal form.

According to us, this state is also known as The Vaishnav State or The Eternal Space, in which the fundamental cosmic energy always leaves its altered physical form and comes into its original form, working to provide a foundation to the universe. And this is a life that neither begins nor ends; it certainly changes its physical body but not its original energy, which always remains in this form. Understanding this state is the most difficult because we have only understood the blur; there is still more depth in it, which we will try to understand further by unification of spiritual science with materialistic science as and when applicable. We feel many mysteries of science, even life beyond ‘Zero Kelvin’ can be understood provided the science of cosmic energy could have been explored thoroughly. What all theories and laws are acting on physical matters on Earth are only limited to a certain pace of physical Earth which are tiny parts of the supreme cosmic world.

Let us rethink about the physical state becomes zero. In summary, to understand any deep state, we need consciousness led innovation and must go beyond the laws that prevent us from solving the mysteries. Our thought process should not be enslaved by any rules; there must be freedom of thought. Only then we can present the facts to human society.

The Scientific Existence of Celestial Verses

Now the time has come to learn about those sources that have been a heritage for thousands of years, but their purpose was not just storytelling. Instead, they were meant to simplify the difficulties that would arise in human civilization. In the scriptures, astronomy is depicted in a way that can escape the illusion of perspectives, meaning you will get the answer based on the viewpoint from which you look at it.

Because here, what appears is different from what is, their greatness cannot be confined to just stories. However, this knowledge depends on human consciousness and the capability of thought.

Today, we will try to understand the essence of that penance. After deep study, we have experienced some verses that reveal to us the form of the universe that is beyond every existence, even to the extent that its nature is eternal and is the reason for the existence of this universe. Let us now witness that truth.

The Bhagavad Gita verse (Chapter 7, Verse 5)

apareyamitastvanyāṁ prakṛtiṁ viddhi me parām jīvabhūtāṁ mahābāho yayedaṁ dhāryate jagat

Most common people understand it in the language in which they bind the truth of this nature into a character, and ultimately they do not achieve what they are not trying to seek. That’s why perspective matters. General Translation: Besides this inferior nature, O mighty-armed Arjuna, there is a superior energy of Mine, which comprises the living entities who are exploiting the resources of this material, inferior nature.

This allows us to experience the existence from physicality to eternity, discusses the states from inferiority to superior energy, and hints at the existence of such a state.

Inferior Nature: Corresponds to the material universe—the physical cosmos we observe. It includes matter, energy, and the forces that govern them.

Superior Energy (Jı̄va S’hakti): Transcends material boundaries. It includes all living souls—the essence of life itself.

One relevant shloka is from Chapter 2, Verse 20: That tries to explain the characteristics, nature, and influence of that Cosmic superior energy.

na jāyate mriyate vā kadācin nāyaṁ bhūtvā bhavitā vā na bhūyaḥ | ajo nityaḥ śāśvato’yaṁ purāṇo na hanyate hanyamāne śarīre || 20||

Generally, its translation is: “The soul is neither born, nor does it ever die; nor having once existed, does it ever cease to be. The soul is without birth, eternal, immortal, and ageless; it is not destroyed when the body is destroyed.”

This verse emphasizes the eternal and indestructible nature of the soul or the fundamental cosmic energy, which transcends physical existence.

• Eternal Nature: Just as the shloka describes the soul as eternal and unchanging, in physics, particles at 0 Kelvin are thought to reach a state where they no longer exhibit traditional physical properties. However, they still possess zero-point energy & even beyond 0 Kelvin there is the absolute state of zero which is beyond the infinity, indicating that their essence or energy remains, even if their physical form changes.

1. 1. Transformation and continuity: The shloka speaks of the soul not being destroyed even when the body is. Similarly, particles at zero Kelvin transform their energy and nature but do not cease to exist. They change from and state, much like the soul transition from one body to another without losing its essence.

• Foundation of Existence: The concept of the Vaishnav state or the Eternal Space, where Fundamental cosmic energy returns to its original form, parallels the idea that the foundation of all existence.

There is no need for anyone to worry about this topic right now because this single shloka has the ability to explain the entire concept easily and in detail. Do not jump to conclusions upon hearing the word ‘soul’; instead, try to understand the profound knowledge within it.

Here, we can easily understand the concept that every particle or energy, in any physical form, always has eternal internal energy. This is evidenced at the state of zero Kelvin, where the same physical particle, upon reaching its maximum physical state, abandons its existing physical form and completely transforms its nature and form into the fundamental cosmic energy. From there, a new beginning starts.

The Presence of Life beyond Zero Kelvin

As the temperature approaches absolute zero (0 Kelvin), particles retain a form of energy known as zero-point energy. This zero-point energy is not just a residual energy but represents the entropy of the fundamental cosmic energy. Here’s a detailed breakdown of the process:

• Existence of Zero-Point Energy:

• At 0 Kelvin, particles are in their lowest energy state, but due to quantum mechanics, they still possess zero-point energy. This energy is a manifestation of the inherent quantum fluctuations and is considered the entropy of the fundamental cosmic energy.

• Interaction of Fundamental Cosmic Energies:

• When similar fundamental cosmic energies come into contact, they interact and try to adapt to each other’s environment. This interaction creates a form of randomness or disorder in the system, which is the entropy.
• This entropy manifests as quantum fluctuations, which are essentially the vibrational randomness resulting from the interaction of these energies.

• Quantum Fluctuations:

• Quantum fluctuations are the result of the entropy created when fundamental cosmic energies interact. These fluctuations are the small, random changes in energy that occur even in a vacuum.
• When similar fundamental cosmic energies meet, they create these fluctuations as they try to adapt to each other’s pace, leading to vibrational randomness.

• Creation of Virtual Particles:

• When quantum fluctuations interact with each other, they can lead to the creation of virtual particles. These particles are temporary and exist only for a brief moment, but they play a crucial role in quantum field theory.
• The process of virtual particle creation is driven by the need for the system to adapt to new conditions and behaviors introduced by the interacting quantum fluctuations.

• Formation of Physical Particles:

• As the temperature rises above 0 Kelvin, the energy in the system increases, allowing virtual particles to gain enough energy to become real, physical particles.
• These physical particles can carry specific energies and follow the rules of thermodynamics, such as energy conservation and entropy increase.

• Role of Fundamental Cosmic Energy:

• Beyond the creation of physical particles, the fundamental cosmic energy remains the underlying foundation of the universe. It is the source of all energy transformations and interactions.
• This fundamental energy drives the creation and sustains the processes of the universe, ensuring that energy flows and transformations continue seamlessly.
• This Eternal Space provides a foundation where change remains constant, and in simple terms, this is the true definition of zero. For me zero is a state that goes beyond infinity. This eternal space, which is zero, has properties that are eternal and supreme. This is the only existence that is present in every particle of the universe.

The Mathematical Analysis

If we want to understand this through a mathematical model, then let’s try to understand it from that perspective. According to us, this is not limited to any physical calculation, but if it is represented in today’s scientific community, then perhaps it will not have any impact on its fact as its unification is still pending.

Eternal State Transformation Let:

ψ: Wave function describing the particle/energy state

Φ(ψ): Energy transformation function representing the eternal state

Ω: Original essence/preserving factor

E: Fundamental Cosmic Energy (eternal vibrations)

𝐸₀: Zero-point energy (entropy of the fundamental cosmic energy)

S: Entropy

T: Temperature (in Kelvin)

Transformation Process As T Approaches 0K:

• The wave function ψ undergoes a transformation, and the zero-point energy ( E_0 ) represents the entropy of the fundamental cosmic energy:

(𝑇 → 0𝐾) → Φ(𝜓) = 𝐸

𝐸 = 𝐸₀ + 𝐸cosmic

𝐸₀ = 𝑘B𝑆(𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑆 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑦)

Quantum Fluctuations:

• When similar fundamental cosmic energies interact, they create entropy in the form of quantum fluctuations: S=E/T

These fluctuations are the vibrational randomness resulting from the interaction. Creation of Virtual Particles:

• Quantum fluctuations can lead to the creation of virtual particles:

Δ𝐸_virtual = ℏ𝜔

Here, (\hbar) is the reduced Planck’s constant and (\omega) is the angular frequency of the fluctuations.

Reversal Process:

1. When T Increases Above 0K:

• The energy transforms back to its physical form:

𝐸 → Φ–1(𝐸) = (𝑇 > 0𝐾)

Conservation of Fundamental Cosmic Energy

• The existence of ( E ) remains unchanged:∂𝐸/∂𝑇=0

Detection Difficulty

• The original state is difficult to detect with current detectors:

𝛼 ⋅ Ω ⋅ Φ(𝜓) ≈ 0

Here, (\alpha) is a coefficient representing the detection difficulty. Energy Flow and Form Change

• The change in form occurs due to energy flow :

∂ψ/∂T = -i (E α Ω Φ(ψ)) · δ(Τ 0K)

Conclusion

As the temperature approaches absolute zero (0 Kelvin), particles retain zero-point energy, which is essentially the entropy of the fundamental cosmic energy. When fundamental cosmic energies interact, they create randomness or entropy, manifesting as quantum fluctuations. These fluctuations occur because similar energies try to adapt to each other’s environment, releasing vibrational randomness.

When quantum fluctuations interact, they can lead to the creation of virtual particles. As the temperature rises and energy flows, these virtual particles can transform into physical particles, which follow thermodynamic rules. Beyond these physical particles, the fundamental cosmic energy is the foundational element of the universe, driving its creation and sustaining its processes.

Keep in mind that these representations are just the beginning of understanding the ‘Eternal Space’ or ‘The Vaishnav State’. As we have understood, this state is not limited to quantum fluctuations alone; its eternal state is much deeper and more complex. We need to understand the process of any particle’s internal energy returning to its original state in greater depth.

This will show us a path to understand the actual origin of the universe. Our work does not stop or is limited here; unification is still pending, and this is just its prelude.

The original concept is yet to come. So far, we have experienced some simple mathematical equations and their processes. Now, with the help of the summary of all these, let’s understand if there is any cosmic unified principle behind all these happenings on which all these types of processes are based, from an eternal state to every physical state of the universe. As we have experienced, how the variation in temperature affects a particle and the reality of its existence process can exist in different natures and forms of the universe.

In summary, I just want to say on this subject that yes, there are indeed some cosmic unified principles that operate in every part of the universe, from the creation of the universe to the end of its physical phases. From a particle to fundamental cosmic energy. We will discuss this in the next research study, where we will have an in-depth discussion on the impact of these principles on the beginning of the universe and the provision of its energy.

Interpretation on This Subject:

When physicality becomes zero, it begins, and it becomes so powerful that it cannot be measured because if the entropy of the great energy flow can create even the physical universe. Just think how supreme it will be.

Certainly, this is beyond physical thought, but consciousness is also a part of it, which always remains in the form of our inner self. And if we give the status of God to that eternal space, there is no harm in it because the entire physical world is running from there. Because this is the very realm that has given shelter to the entire physical universe.

This is not the end of this topic, but it is the ignition that gives a thrust to this topic, pushing it forward with even more strength. This calculation might just be a beginning, but the truth is yet to come, which will surely be revealed in its other parts.

In this process of change, we can achieve more efficient energy transmission and advancements in nanotechnology, leading to improved materials for energy storage and conversion. Along with this, this topic can help us explore the unresolved mysteries of the universe and the secrets of its existence on both large and small scales. In the next part of this research, we will understand how the Fundamental Cosmic Energy of Eternal Space works, how it exists and how we can comprehend it.

This universe is vast & if we talk about ourselves, we are tiny particles smaller than countless parts of even a fraction of it. However, life exists within. We also have a small physical human world, and as long as there is life in our body, our entire life is to be dedicated to human welfare, keeping nature in mind.

This is the sentiment I always bow to. Our duties are to illuminate the nectar of knowledge given by each sage of the ancient era and present the infinite knowledge of the entire universe in both spiritual and scientific manner. Let each one of us think deeply with consciousness and get enlightened with ‘The Super Nature’ even being in a micro-physical environment.

Acknowledgement

We express soulful gratitude to our Rishis, including Maharishi Agastya, Maharshi Bharadwaj, and the greatest yogi, the revered Shri Krishna, who, keeping in mind the philosophy of Kaliyug, encapsulated the penance power of each sage into one Bhagwatam scripture. Today, we have been able to understand it, and for this nectar given by them, we bow and thank them with full devotion for our human duties and body on this Earth. We also offer countless salutations to my parents for my very existence in this human life.

In this invaluable duty of our life, at every turn, selflessly, through every up and down, those who have helped us and maintained their blessings and faith, We offer countless salutations and thanks to the most respected revered Shri Ravin Vyas ji, respected Hiral Mata shri, Kushal Bhaiya & Rajan Bhaiya. To every guide in our life, including the revered Shri Satheesh Reddy ji, Prof. B.S Murthy ji. We offer countless salutations and many, many thanks.

Reference

1. Prabhupada, A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami. 2008. Bhagavad Gita As It Is: With the Original Sanskrit Text, Roman Transliteration, English Equivalents, Translation and Elaborate Purports. Alachua, FL: The Bhaktivedanta Book Trust.
2. Callen, Herbert B. 1985. Thermodynamics and an Introduction to Thermostatistics. 2nd ed. New York: Wiley.
3. Milonni, Peter W. 1994. The Quantum Vacuum: An Introduction to Quantum Electrodynamics. San Diego: Academic Press.
4. Mukherjee, Archana. 2023. Tribute to Goodness in Service Sectors and to Supreme Power: Experience Sharing. Journal of Environmental and Sociobiology 20(2): 181-184. ISSN 0973-0834.

ABSTRACT

This paper is centered on the narration of Swami Vivekananda about the science and philosophy of religion based on Indian Sankhya and Vedanta thought systems; the contents are taken from his lectures and discourses given at various places in United States of America and Europe, beginning with his epoch-making address at The Parliament of Religions, Chicago, in 1893, following his tour till end of 1896. He has explained to the western audience about the depth of ancient Indian philosophical thoughts which even touched upon scientific manifestations such as the creation of the universe from an infinitesimally small, yet with infinite energy primordial stage, both the micro-world and macro-world are built on the same plan, matter and energy are nothing but the same, indeterminacy to be the innate characteristic of nature, unity of nature is inbuilt through interconnectedness of its species etc. Some of his statements have been supported later through scientific discoveries. The ultimate goal of mankind in every domain is to achieve unity.

Keywords: Sankhya philosophy, Advaita Vedanta, Swami Vivekananda, Unity of nature, Creation of the universe, Matter and energy, Indeterminacy of the physical world.

 

INTRODUCTION

The paper “Unity of Knowledge: A Brief Overview” by the present author in the previous issue of this journal reported about unity of knowledge pertaining to Western Scholars (Paramguru 2024). Though the disciplines sharing knowledge ranged from natural sciences to social sciences, arts and humanities to psychology to religion; it was found that science stood at one extreme and religion, mostly covering Christian Religious School(s) of thought, at the other. In that context, it was also mentioned that the Indian thought according to Vedic and Vedanta philosophy will attract a lot of space, and hence, kept out of that paper with a commitment to bring them in later issue(s). The present paper is one resultant outcome of that commitment. Further, as regards religion in Indian context, reports are available that “Swami Vivekananda (1863-1902) – epoch-making spiritual leader of India who made Hinduism dynamic and practical, and urged modern humanity to combine Western science and materialism with India’s spiritual culture for a sustainable civilization” (Majumdar, 2012, 1). Thus, based on such a solid ground, the present paper aims to examine up to what extent the unification of science and religion is effective in Indian context that too based on Advaita Vedanta. Though, in the earlier paper, the human personalities sharing the knowledge ranged from biologists to psychologists, neurologists to theologians and many others; in the present paper, the narrative of a single person namely Swami Vivekananda, the Indian monk will be discussed, which might have been reported by scholars in physics, medicine and religion.  

 

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

Vedic philosophy has existed in India since ancient times, mostly depicting spiritual laws realized through deep observation by rishis (sagas) and transmitted through srutti (hearing and remembering) to the next and next generations. Then came the Vedantic period when the rishis consolidated on Vedic knowledge by writing down the details to be preserved and transmitted further. Thus, various Upanishads authored by various sagas are available; yet, the focus of this article is centered on the narration of Swami Vivekananda, mostly in his seven lectures given in New York in the beginning of 1896, published as a book The Science and Philosophy of Religion: A comparative study of Sankhya, Vedanta and other systems of thought by Swami Vivekananda, and edited by Swami Saradananda (1915). In his lectures, Swamiji, as lucid as he is known to be, has covered systematically the Sankhya philosophy developed by rishi Kapila followed by the three steps of Vedanta philosophy namely, Dualistic Vedanta, Qualified monistic Vedanta, and Advaita Vedanta, the last is completely monistic. The time period when Rishi Kapila has developed his Sankhya philosophy “is not yet derived absolutely, but it must be more than five thousand years before present” (Raja 2017, 40). Advaita Vedanta has come subsequently and is supposed to be given final shape by Rishi Adi Shankara, the time period may be slightly later. However, Swami Vivekananda deserves all credit, first to make a strong and appealing statement at The Parliament of Religions, Art Institute of Chicago, on 11th September 1893; and then stayed back in the USA till the end of 1896 to explain to the American people the essence of Vedantic philosophy.

It will be prudent to understand the exact objective of Swami Vivekananda’s endeavor. Many authors, helped by the generous attitude of Ramakrishna Mission (specifically Advaita Ashram) in collecting, organizing and storing all the information about Swamiji, have covered each facet with width and depth (Majumdar 2012, Banerjee 2017, Vivekananda (Ed. Saradananda) 1915, Raja 2017, Samarpanananda 2013, Dwivedi 2014, Monto 2010, Gulati 2020a, 2020b). Besides, the voluminous Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda (CWSV) is also available. According to Swami Vivekananda: His Life and Works (VHPA 2012), he was born in Shimla Pally, Calcutta on 12 January 1863 to mother Bhuvaneshwari Devi, a pious lady and father Vishwanath Datta, an attorney of Calcutta High Court; and was given the name Narendranath (4). Narendra, though started his education at home with his mother, soon got admitted to Metropolitan Institution of Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar and passed his Entrance Examination in 1879. He had interest in a wide range of subjects like philosophy, history, social sciences, arts, literature, classical music, sports and organizational activities. He also showed interest in scriptural texts and read Vedas, the Upanishads, Bhagavad Gita, Ramayana, Mahabharata, and other Puranas. Though he entered into college life at Presidency College, Calcutta in 1880, he changed over to Scottish Church College, Calcutta, next year and studied western logic, western philosophy and history of European nations; and completed his Bachelor of Arts Examination in 1884. He was a voracious reader with exceptional ability to comprehend, memorize and assimilate. He went ahead reading books on philosophy, astronomy, chemistry and others written by various authors. Most importantly, he got his best cherished learning about the truth of God from his revered Guru Ramakrishna Paramahansa. By 1891, he has become a true yogi and a saga of high intellect – Swami Vivekananda – already got himself well acquainted with the concepts of Kant, Hegel, Schopenhauer and many others; got well versed with life and teachings of Jesus Christ, Prophet Mohammed, and Lord Buddha. He has realized that “all religions speak the same truth” and he got an “intense desire to spread this wonderful message of Unity of Existence and Unity in Diversity” to the entire mankind (23). Accordingly, all alone, in January 1891, he embarked upon the journey of all over the Holy Land of India to get first hand information about the state of religion in the Indian masses. The sight of the sad plight, poverty, sufferings of his countrymen, though brought a lot of pain, yet threw further light into the thought domain of this ‘wondering monk’ – material progress and spiritual uplift are not contradictory to each other, rather most complementary and supplementary for mutual growth. “He was convinced that science and religion should and would join hands so that a new chapter may be written in human history”(24). Since then, “(H)he sowed the seeds of Vedanta in the west and scientific growth in India. He considered the synthesis of east and west as the best model for mankind and excellence” (Dwivedi 2014, 315). His actions during the years to come, though just around a decade due to his untimely death in 1902, have been history. 

SCIENCE AND RELIGION DIVIDE

At that point of time science and religion were at loggerheads. Swami Vivekananda himself started his lecture at New York during 1896 as: “There are two words, the microcosm and the macrocosm, the internal and the external. We get truths from both of these by means of experience; there is internal experience and external experience. The truths gathered from internal experience are psychology, metaphysics and religion; from external experience the physical sciences. Now a perfect truth should be in harmony with experience in both the worlds”(Vivekananda 1915, 9). However, he laments saying – “Yet as a rule we find that many of these truths are constantly conflicting. At one period of the world’s history the ‘internals’ became supreme, and they began to fight the ‘externals’; at the present time the ‘externals,’ the physicists, have become supreme, and they have put down many claims of the psychologists and metaphysicians” (9). To put the divide between science and religion in exact situation, Swami Samarpanananda writes: “The beginning of the divide between science and religion may be attributed to Rene Descartes (1596-1650), who brought in the concept of the Cartesian divide through his X-axis and Y-axis” (Samarpanananda 2013, 40). Raja has also reported about Descartes’ reductionist approach, and according to him, Sir Isaac Newton also contributed to the same approach and their statements in combine were called “Cartesian Newtonian paradigm” (Raja 2017, 75). One way, this divide prompted people to think matter and mind, God and the world, science and religion are eternally different; but the other greater damage of this paradigm to mankind was that all things in the Universe are separate, not related and not interconnected. Obviously, Swami Vivekananda, who had a clear view of the inherent harmony between science and religion, had to put up his views which will be dealt with in this paper in some detail. Of course, at this stage of his lecture, he stopped with this statement: “So far as my little knowledge goes, I find that the really essential parts of psychology are in perfect accordance with the essential parts of modern physical knowledge” (Vivekananda 1915, 9-10).

 

ADVAITA VEDANTA – WHAT IT GIVES

Vivekananda has “declared that science and religion go together only on a foundation of Advaita (monistic) Vedanta with its fundamental ideas of an impersonal God, the presence of the infinite within the finite, and a basic interconnectedness of everything in the universe” (Majumdar 2012, 1). Here, an attempt is made to elucidate the fundamental ideas of Advaita Vedanta, one by one, to show-case its role as envisaged by Swamiji. 

Knowledge

According to Mundaka Upanishad, knowledge is divided into two categories; one is Intuitive knowledge about God (para vidya), and the other is Practical knowledge about the world (apara vidya) (Samarpanananda 2013, 40). The knowledge about science as well as about the scriptures falls in the second category. Further, Vedanta relies on the validity of pratyaksha pramana (sense perception), and anumana pramana (reasoning); these two approaches are also followed by science (42). The third approach, namely shabda pramana (words of scriptures), creates problems of acceptability in the science sphere. The fact remains that the idea about God, soul, or creation cannot come through direct perception, or reasoning. Mostly, the religions have gathered such knowledge through the transcendental experience of the sagas, prophets or founders of such religions. It is believed in Hinduism that when the great sagas give up all their worldly connections and desires, meditate in a pure mind, they can attain a transcending state of mind called Samadhi when they can experience the light of God. Swamiji has also described about such a “meditative state” and says that “— we see why the meditative state is always called the highest state by the Yogi, for to feel one’s self as one with the Purusha is neither a passive nor an active state, but the meditative state. This is in Sankhya philosophy” (Vivekananda 1915, 52). The argument runs here that such specific meditative experience is not a mere experience, but a transcending one, does not melt the ice of the materialist’s stubborn mind. However, at a later stage of this paper, aspects covering how this Purusha, though perceived as the so-called God, is just the ‘consciousness’; as well as, Swamiji’s own such meditative experience will be discussed. At this stage though, the knowledge remains unresolved between science and religion, we proceed forward with all the other features of Advaita Vedanta with a hope that some meeting point emerges somewhere.

 

Creation – The starting point

Creation remains an issue of utmost interest to mankind, belonging to both the groups of science and religion, because ‘where from we have come’ and ‘where are we going to’ always remain the vital questions. Of course, the easy, eternal religious answer to such questions is ‘we have come from God and will go back to Him’, and scientists, recently, have told us that we have come from ‘big bang’ and are going towards ‘big crunch’. However, our focus, here in this paper, is to discuss how Swami Vivekananda has envisioned this creation process from Sankhya and Vedanta theories. He cites the “Rig Veda”, the oldest Indian scripture in existence, then refers to a “beautiful passage describing creation”, which he terms as “most poetical” – “Where there was neither aught nor naught, when darkness was rolling over darkness, what existed?” – He says that the answer also lies there – “It (the Eternal One) then existed without motion” (14). Here, in fact, he has cited Sukta 129 of 10th Mandala of Rig Veda; and ‘the Eternal One’ within bracket, refers to the state of ‘nature’, which the Hindu philosophers call Avyaktam, literally meaning “without vibration,” or unmanifested (15). Then he begins with the way the creation manifested from Prakriti according to the Sankhya theory, he terms it ‘Sankhya cosmology,’ and finally ends with the Advaita philosophy of Brahman. At first, he explains that we all use the word ‘Nature’, however, the old Hindu philosophers called it by two different names, Prakriti, which is almost the same as the English word ‘Nature,’ and by the more scientific name, Avyaktam (“undiferentiated”), out of which come atoms and molecules, matter and force, and mind and intellect. More precisely, Avyaktam is defined as the “equilibrium of the three forces,” the first is called sattwa, which is the highest and is responsible for control of the other two; the second one is rajas, a little higher than the later and results in ‘repulsion;’ and the third one is tamas, which is the lowest one and results in ‘attraction’ (11). When tamas and rajas are in balance – there is no vibration, therefore, no creation, no evolution, which is referred to “It (the Eternal One) then existed without motion” cited above. However, prana and akasa, were latent in that ‘Eternal One,’ without any phenomenal manifestation; and the creation of universe started from this infinitesimally small, yet with infinite energy primordial stage, termed singularity – corresponding to Vedantic terminology of Anidavatam (no vibration) (Banerjee, 2017).

 

Creation – of the universe

The most extraneous part of the universe, what in modern times, we call gross matter, the ancient Hindus call it the bhutas, the external elements. Akasa, one of these bhutas, is the primal element out of which every gross thing proceeds. Along with it there is something else called prana, which may be defined as life, or vital energy, but must not be restricted to the life of man, nor identified as the spirit, or, Atman. The prana and the akasa exist as long as creation lasts, and they combine and recombine and form all gross manifestations of the universe (Vivekananda 1915, 14). At the beginning of a new creation, this Avyaktam begins to vibrate and blow after blow is given by prana to akasa causing condensation and gradually, through the forces of attraction and repulsion, atoms are formed. The akasa, by repeated blows of prana produces vayu or the vibratory state of the akasa, which in turn produces gaseous matter. The vibrations growing more and more rapidly generate heat, which in Sanskrit is called tejas, gradually it is cooled off and the gaseous substance becomes liquid, apa, and finally solid, prithivi (15). Thus, at first, we have akasa vibrating, and then comes heat, and then it becomes liquefied, and when still more condensed it appears as solid matter. The Sankhya philosophy believes that this process of creation or evolution of the universe is followed with a process of involution, when it goes back to equilibrium, or, no vibration state. It goes back to the un-manifested condition in exactly the reverse way, i.e., from solid to liquid, mass of heat to gaseous state, and then to atoms, and then to equilibrium state, and then the vibration stops and the cycle of evolution ends. The period starting from the beginning of one evolution till the end of one involution is called a kalpa. We know from modern astronomy, maybe just for the present evolution, that this earth and sun of ours are undergoing similar transitions (16).

There are certain characteristics of akasa and prana. Prana cannot work alone without the help of akasa. The prana cannot exist alone, or act without a medium, and in every state of it, as pure, or as other force, it can never be separate from akasa. Every movement that we see is a modification of this prana, and everything that we know as a form of matter, either as form or as resistance, is a modification of this akasa. The way we have never seen force without matter or matter without force; what we call force and matter being simply the gross manifestations of the two, and these when superfine, the old philosophers have called prana and akasa. Thus, creation is a “product of prana and akasa and is without beginning and end; it cannot have either, for it is eternally going on” (17).

 

Creation – of the little universe

Swamiji, in the very beginning of his lecture has referred to “human mind” as “our little universe.” (1). Further, he has immediately stated that – “The macrocosm and the microcosm are, as it were, in the same groove, passing through the same stages vibrating in the same key” (2); and also repeats later – “The whole of the universe is built upon the same plan as one single man, or one little being” (24). This narration implies that both the human ‘body’ and ‘mind’ undergo similar manifestations like the gross bodies of our universe. The source is same, akasa, and prana; though it is also mentioned that, in case of living beings such as man, animals, and plants, “the seed for the body must come from the parents,” therefore, “the theory also includes heredity and reincarnation too” (25). During his lectures, Swamiji proudly highlights – “It is startling to find that the philosophers and metaphysicians of India ages ago stated that mind is but matter in a finer form, –. And so is thought; and we shall find by and by that the intellect also comes from the same Nature which is called Avyaktam, the undifferentiated” (11). It may be mentioned here that in the earlier paper, Wilson (1998) has highlighted the significance of this basis of “’mind’, its ‘thinking’, ‘emotion’, and other ‘mental processes” including the nerve-centers in unification of knowledge (Paramguru 2024, 136). Swamijee, then cites “another proposition” stated by the ancient philosophers which is also “startling” is that – “Everything that is gross is composed of a combination of fine things, so the bhutas must be composed of certain fine particles, called in Sanskrit the tanmatras” (18). He has nicely explained about tanmatras with the example of the smell of a flower, when the gross matter ‘flower’ is visible by the naked eye, the finer tanmatras, fine molecules of that flower, only perceived as smell by anybody around the flower, but not visible by the naked eye. Further, he says – “these tanmatras can again be subdivided into atoms” (18). Here, a series of fine elements come into play. First of all, we have the gross elements, which we can feel externally, and composing them are the finer elements, which come in contact with the nerves of the nose, eyes, and ears. Thus, the nose, eyes, and ears etc., are just the external instruments connected to the nerve centers so as to form the organs, or, indriyas, which are the real seats of perception. All these indriyas combined, plus the internal instrument or antahkarana, form the finer body of man, called the linga (or sukshma) sarira. Behind the indriyas is the manas, the chitta in vriti, what might be called the vibratory state of the mind. Then comes the reaction, the will, may be called Buddhi, the determining or decisive faculty of mind. Another thing also accompanies all the acts of the mind – called egoism, the ahamkara, the self-consciousness, and behind that is what is called Mahat, the intelligence, the highest form of Nature’s existence. Behind the intellect is the true Self of man, the Purusha, the pure, the perfect. It may also be called the soul, or the Atman.

 

Creation – without God!

At this stage of narration, Swamiji makes a statement – “I must here tell you that some of our best psychologists do not believe in a personal God in the sense in which you believe in Him. The father of all psychologists, Kapila, denies the existence of God as Creator. His idea is that a personal God is quite unnecessary; Prakriti is sufficient to work out all that is good” (22). However, he admits a peculiar kind of God. He says that each one of us is struggling to get free, and when man becomes free he can melt away into Prakriti for the time being, to come out at the beginning of the next cycle an omniscient and omnipotent being and be its ruler. Thus, he says, you and I and even the humblest beings will be gods in different cycles. Kapila arguably stresses that there can be such a temporal god, but never an eternal God, eternally omnipotent and eternally ruler of the universe. He further continues that wherever the word God is mentioned in our Scriptures, the Vedas, it means those perfected souls who have become free. 

At this point, a question arises, in absence of a creator God, what is the cause of these finer materials like tanmatras, and also the organs etc.? Here, Swamiji says, “A very startling and curious answer is given by our psychologists, – self-consciousness” (19). The Sankhyas believe that each existing material in the universe has some portion of consciousness as its material. Rather, it will be prudent to say that the first essential manifestation of prakriti in the cosmos is Mahat, we may call it universal intelligence; and consciousness (including all the grounds of consciousness, sub-consciousness, and super-consciousness) is only a part of this intelligence, which is universal. Further, out of Mahat, is manufactured the egoism, out of which are manufactured two sets of fine materials – all nerves and nerve centers including indriyas, as well as tanmatras. Here, the Sankhya philosophy brings out another factor, ‘sentient’/’insentient’. Everything in nature, Prakriti itself, is jada (insentient). Mind, intelligence, and will, all its products, are insentient; but they are all reflecting the sentiency, the Chit (intelligence) of some Being who is beyond all this, and whom the Sankhya philosophers call Purusha. What is then this Purusha? It is neither intelligence nor buddhi (will), but yet it is the cause of both of these; it is only His presence that sets them all vibrating and combining. The very basis of sentiency lies in the Purushs, and it is the nature of the Purusha, and ‘Katha Upanishad, V, 13,’ has rightly said – “In this world of insentiency that Purusha alone is sentient” (44). That is to say, this Purusha, taking him in the universal sense, is the impersonal God of the universe; and taking him in the human sense, is the small God of the human being.

 

Creation – completed by Advaita Vedanta

According to Swamiji, the creation manifested till the present stage by Sankhya philosophy is pretty good, and henceforth, the Vedanta philosophy takes over. In fact, the entire basis and the compact structure brought out by the sankhya philosophy provide a solid foundation for the Vedantists to accept and move forward, however, there are just three positions taken by the Sankhyas which need to be improved upon. The first position is that intelligence or anything of that sort does not belong to the soul, it belongs entirely to Prakriti, therefore, making the soul simply a quality-less, and colorless proposition. The second one is that there is no God, and the third one to be contended with is that there cannot be infinite number of souls. The Vedantists solve the first position by teaching us that the soul is not just a quality-less, and colorless proposition, but it is in its essence unlimited or Absolute Existence-Knowledge-Bliss. They show us that the three grand basic ideas of life, such as, I exist, I know, and I am blessed, which come from within and are combining themselves with the external things to manufacture phenomenal existence, knowledge and love, are called by the Vedantists “Existence Absolute, Knowledge Absolute, Bliss Absolute” (58). Thus, the soul gets its essence unlimited status from the Vedantists, who proceed further to give shape to the other two propositions. All the three forms and phases of Vedanta, namely, dualistic, qualified monistic, and monistic, first take this position – that God is not only the instrumental but also the efficient cause of this universe, that everything which exists is He. The second step in Vedanta is that these souls are also a part of God, one spark of that Infinite Fire, from which millions of small particles fly. The non-dualistic Vedantist solves the problem by maintaining that there is really no part; that each soul is really not a part of the Infinite, but actually is the Infinite Brahman. Then how can there be so many souls? The answer is that the way sun reflected from millions of globules of water appears to be millions of suns, and in each globule is a miniature picture of sun-form; so all these souls are but reflections and not real. He has not been divided, but only appears to be divided, and this apparent division, or maya, is caused by looking at Him through the network of time, space, and causation. Thus, the Advaitist’s final conclusion is the same as Shankaracharya’s Nirvan Shatka I – “I am neither the mind, nor the body, nor am I the organs; I am Existence-Knowledge-Bliss Absolute; I am He, I am He” (65). 

 

Echoes of Vedanta – in modern science

Swami Vivekananda had the knack of explaining philosophical thoughts of Vedanta, not as abstract philosophical jargons, but as factual scientific truths. He used to bring in suitable similes and comparisons including common scientific facts which used to be attractive, besides clarifying the points in minute detail. It is understood that during his Chicago Parliament of religion sessions in 1893, as well as his other meetings until 1896 end, eminent scientists of that time, namely, Lord Kelvin, Prof. Von. Helmholtz, Nicholas Tesla, and others used to be in the audience. Swamiji has also told and written at various places about his interactions with them. Some of these interactions, specifically his utterances based on Vedantic theory appear as echoes in modern science. Even, Swamiji himself has boldly declared in his Chicago address on 19th September, 1893, that – “… Vedanta philosophy, of which latest discoveries of science seem like echoes …” (Banerjee 2017, 2). A few of them, where glimpses of scientific truths were told and either got scientific confirmation after some years, or still waiting for such confirmation,  are placed below.

Macro-world and micro-world built on same plan: It is known that during 1890, Swamiji had a deep meditation below an old Peppul tree beside a stream near Almorah (India), after awakening, he wrote down – “the scheme of the universe of both micro-world and macro-world are built on a same plan … the whole universe exists in the atom” (Banerjee 2017, 1). This example serves two purposes here; first, he gets his statement from ‘meditation’ which can be termed as transcendental experience, and second, the scientific echo of his statement. Similar statements such as “macrocosm and microcosm are built on exactly the same plan” (Vivekananda 1915, 40), and “(T) this universe does not come from out of atoms, they may be the secondary, tertiary state” (27), are also found in his lectures during 1896. During that period of time, such vision of Swamiji was anti-science; then the general scientific belief was that atoms are the smallest particles of the matter and they are indivisible. It is only in 1913; Rutherford and Bohr’s planetary model of atomic structure came to light, which has seen further developments, and at present, “during 21st century, the string based theory, termed as the theory of everything, is trying to visualize the entire scheme of the universe as a unified field” (Banerjee 2017, 2). It is strange, but a fact that Swamiji could pronounce this happening during 1890s based on his meditation and his knowledge of Advaita Vedanta which have been proved by later science discoveries. 

 

Matter and Energy are the same: This ‘matter and energy’, or, ‘akasa and prana’  issue has been aptly described by Raja in his book (2017) and the referral point was the interview on Maya by Swami Vivekananda for the benefit of the French actress Sarah Bernhardt on 5th February, 1896 at New York. Incidentally, the famous scientist Nicholas Tesla was present there. While explaining, Swamiji said – “Thus for example, the force and matter are one and the same” (74). On hearing this statement, Tesla was shocked, because at that point of time, the scientists were believing energy (force) and matter to be entirely different entities. Obviously Tesla wanted more explanation, and Swamiji explained him all details about Akasa, Prana, Kalpa, and how they perform according to Vedanta theory. Tesla was charmed to get all these explanation, and said – “According to me, they are the only theories modern science can entertain” (87). Even he came forward to prove this mathematically, which Swami Vivekananda shared in his letter to E. T. Sturdy on 13th February, 1896, “Mr. Tesla thinks he can demonstrate mathematically that force and matter are reducible to potential energy. I am to go and see him next week to get his new mathematical demonstration” (Banerjee 2017, 4). However, the destiny was different, it was not Tesla in 1896, but Albert Einstein in 1905 was the person to get credit for demonstrating the equation E = mc2 with due notation. However, by 1905, Swami Vivekananda was no more and it remained unseen and unknown – how he would have felt then, had he been alive!

 

Indeterminacy of the physical world: Swami Vivekananda, during 1896, while talking about God, Absolute, Perfection, Freedom, of course each of these terms merge at one centre, he brings in the issue of indeterminacy of each of these terms when viewed through the prism of time, space, and causation. On one occasion, he said – “When I look at God through the network of time, space, and causation, I see Him as the material world. When I look at Him from a little higher plane, yet through the same network, I see Him as an animal, a little higher as a man, a little higher as a God, but yet He is the one Infinite Being of the universe, and that Being we are. I am that, and you are that. Not part of it, but the whole of it” (Vivekananda 1915, 70). What he wants to convey here is that, just by viewing the (Infinite, Absolute, Perfect, Free) God through the network of time, space, and causation, he observes finite, imperfect, and bound species of material and living world. That means Absolute is manifesting as many finite forms through the veil of time, space and causation; all these three cannot exist separately, because each one has entirely dependent existence. Here, Swamiji’s explanation, through the above uncertain understanding of the Absolute, hints at indeterminacy to be the innate characteristic of nature, when viewed through the prism of time, space, and causation. Decades later, precisely in 1927, it echoed in Warner Heisenbeg’s uncertainty principle, which states that “the position and velocity of an object cannot both be measured exactly, at the same time, even in theory. The very concept of exact position and exact velocity together, has no meaning in nature” (Banerjee 2017, 6). Alas! Once again Swamiji was not alive to see and respond to this.

 

Interconnectedness in nature: The terms ‘ecological balance’, ‘conservation of all species,’ and ‘sustainability’ has gained ground since mid-twentieth century, because it has been realized that interdependence of all species in nature is an eternal condition.  Earlier in this paper, the issue of “Cartesian Newtonian paradigm”, created by a section of the scientific community during 16-17th century, has been discussed (Raja 2017, 75). This divide, besides prompting people to think science and religion are eternally different, also induced the mankind to think that all things in Universe are separate, not related and not interconnected. This brought out a strong feeling of selfishness, greed, and inhuman thoughts culminating in colonialism, slavery, exploitation of Mother Nature, and environmental hazards (76). Fortunately, the realization of interdependence of all species in nature has brought in the new topics such as ‘sustainable development,’ ‘environment impact assessment,’ ‘maintaining eco-balance’ have become highly pertinent subjects of the 21st century. Though, these subjects were not so well-known during the late 19th century when Swami Vivekananda was making his epoch-making speeches in United States of America and Europe, he was highlighting the specific points like, “(T)the whole universe is one of perfect balance. I do not know, but some day we may wake up and find that the mere worm has something which balances our manhood,” and “(T)the whole universe is only a wave and a hollow; there can be no wave without a hollow. Balance everywhere,” his caution towards Nature’s balance stands a century ahead (CWSV, 41). Needless to mention that ‘Unit of Nature’ (Doherr 2015), and ‘Sustainable Science’ (Kates 2011) have been identified also by western scholars to be the important parameters towards unifying knowledge (Paramguru, 2024). 

CONCLUSIONS

Our goal of this paper is to achieve unity of knowledge. Can Advaita Vedanta provide it? To hope further, can it unite science and religion together? As regards the science, Swami Vivekananda says – “Science is nothing but the finding of unity. As soon as science would reach perfect unity, it would stop from further progress, because it would reach the goal” (CWSV, 329). On religion he says – “You cannot go beyond the idea of the Absolute, the idea of the One, out of which everything in the universe has evolved” (Vivekananda 1915, 131). The last word of Advaita is, Tat tvam asi, – “That thou art” (132).  

 

REFERENCES

1. Banerjee, Sudhish C., 2017. “Swami Vivekananda – as the Scientist.” International journal of Advanced Research in Physical Science (IJARPS) 4(11): 1-10. ISSN No. (Online) 2349-7882. www.arcjournals.org.
2. CWSV: Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda. https://www.vedanta-nl.org/CWSV.pdf.
3. Doherr, Detlev., 2015. “Alexander von Humboldt’s idea of interconnectedness and its Relationship to interdisciplinary and communication.” Systemics, Cybernetics and Informatics 13(6): 47-51.Dwivedi, B. N., 2014. “Swami Vivekananda’s interaction with scientists and his appreciation of them: celebrating his 150th birth anniversary.” Current Science 106(2, 25th Jan): 315-317.
4. Dwivedi, B. N., 2014. “Swami Vivekananda’s interaction with scientists and his appreciation of them: celebrating his 150th birth anniversary.” Current Science 106(2, 25th Jan): 315-317.
5.  
6. Gulati, Vivek., 2020A. “Vivekananda’s Philosophy – Blending Philosophy and Science.” IJARIIE-ISSN (O)-2395-4396 6(1, 12773): 1389-1399. www.ijariie.com. 
7. Gulati, Vivek., 2020B. “Vivekananda: An Intuitive Scientist.” IJARIIE-ISSN (O)-2395-4396 6(3, 12774): 1934-1945. www.ijariie.com. 
8. Kates, Robert W., 2011. “From the Unity of Nature to Sustainability Science: Ideas and Practice.” CID Working Paper No. 218. Centre for International Development, Harvard University. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University, March 2011.
9. Majumdar, Sisir K., 2012. “Vivekananda on Science and Religion.” Frontier (January 8-14, 2012) 44(26): NOTE. http://frontierweekly.com>vol>note-44-26.
10. Monto, Geethanjali., 2010. “Swami Vivekananda’s use of science to communicate spirituality.” Current Science 98(5, 10 Mar): 711-712.
11. Paramguru, Raja Kishore., 2024. “Unity of Knowledge: A Brief Overview.” Towards Unification of Sciences 2(2): 132-140. https://philosophyofnature.org.in.
12. Raja, M. L., 2017. Swami Vivekananda and Modern Science. Kochi: Kurukshetra prakashan.
13. Samarpanananda, Swami, 2013. “Swami Vivekananda: Bridging the Cartesian Divide of Science and Religion.” Indore Management Journal 4(4, Jan-Mar): 40-46. 
14. S V. 2012. Swami Vivekananda: His Life and Works. With excerpts from “The Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda.” (VHPA 2012). VHPA Camp. 2012. https://dc.vhp-america.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/06/SWAMI-VIVEKANANDA-Life-and-Works.pdf.
15. Vivekananda, Swami, 1915. The Science and Philosophy of Religion: A comparative study of Sankhya, Vedanta and other systems of thought. Ed. Swami Saradananda. Second edition, Ramkrishna Math, Publisher: Brahmachari Kapila, Calcutta: Udbodhan Office.
16. Wilson, Edward, O., 1998. Consilience: The unity of knowledge. Vintage Books, A Division of Random House, Inc. New York, NY.
    
     

 

Abstract

The planets Venus, Uranus and Pluto are reported to have retrograde rotation.  And the satellites of Ananke group, Carme group and Pasiphae group of Jupiter, Phoebe of Saturn and Triton of Neptune are reported to have retrograde revolution. However, according to this author, the above retrograde rotation & revolution of planets and satellites is the reality they are so identified with due to erroneous characterisation of the north pole. Thus, in reality, all orbital bodies revolve & rotate in prograde without exception which makes one comfortable to develop a theory for the same. The generally accepted nebular theory on formation of the solar system gets a boost by this new finding. In any way the nebular theory cannot be accepted as a standard theory due to many fouling limitations. The distribution of angular momentum among Sun and planets alone is enough to discard the nebular theory. Further, it is not possible to indefinitely maintain the state of rotational motion and orbital motion developed at the time of formation without ignoring the resistance to motion offered by the physical nature of space. An alternate explanation by conceptualizing the association of a space structure surrounding a celestial body helps in developing a new fluid dynamic model to explain all possible motions of planets and satellites in the solar system. In the new fluid dynamics model all orbital celestial bodies with their extra nuclear space structure are housed in the spinning extra nuclear space structure of a rotating nucleus-celestial-body. The orbital bodies get their drive for prograde rotational and orbital motion from the spinning extra nuclear space fluid of the central body. The new mass-space interaction proposed elsewhere by this author helps to promote the formation of extra nuclear space structures surrounding all celestial bodies and functioning of a fluid-dynamics in the solar system. The fluid dynamics model provides proper justification to prograde rotation and revolution of planets and satellites. The paper introduces the pre-conditions of fluid dynamics model and provides justification for the prevailing prograde motion. Keywords: Fluid dynamics, Planet and satellites, Spinning, Nuclear space.

Introduction

The sun has many orbital bodies (planets) and planets also have many orbital bodies (satellites). The sun rotates anticlockwise when viewed from the North Pole end. Planets revolve around the sun anticlockwise and rotate about their own axis anticlockwise when viewed from the north-pole end. The direction of revolution and rotation stated above are prograde motion. Few planets and satellites are recorded to have reverse rotation and revolution (retrograde motion) violating the general trend. This author, however, has shown that the recorded retrograde motions are not a reality but a conclusion drawn due to erroneous characterization of the North Pole. Hence, there is only one trend of prograde motion only. This paper analyses the dynamics for the prograde motions. The physical space has dimension; hence geometry is applicable to space. Every physical entity has internal interaction property and external interaction property. Geometry has a role on both the properties. The internal interaction property of constituents is responsible for formation and stability of the entity whereas, the external interaction property that promotes its dynamics. The contents of a physical entity per unit volume (density) may be different in different states of the physical entity. Thus space, a physical entity, can have different space density (space content per unit volume). Hence different physical gas or physical space pockets can have different internal properties. The inherent internal property of gas is a function of space density (space content per unit volume), nature of micro particles present, the number density of different types of micro particles and the electric charge state of particles. Likewise, the inherent internal property of a space pocket is a function of space density, nature of space matter particles, the number density of different types of space matter particles and the non-electric charge state (photonic charge state) of the particles. The atoms and molecules are space matter particles in gaseous state of matter and the crowding of electrons in space are space matter particles in electronic gas. The author has justified the light particle as mass bearing particles [2]. In the light of the above the so-called space, in reality, is a photonic gas, therefore, a mass-space integral system [2]. Lack of perception to rest mass of light particles (matter particles of micro-micro domain), the intrinsic property of space fluid is attributed to the property of geometry through space-time curvature. Thus, reality is understood through unnatural manners. In any case both spaces with known or unknown space matter particles are physical. Therefore, space itself is a fluid and has a role in the dynamics of the celestial body in the solar system.

Discussion

We know the earth and its atmosphere is rotating at the same angular speed. If the atmosphere would not have been rotating then we would have been experiencing super-super- cyclones all the time on the surface of the earth. The atmosphere of the earth extends to far distances but not realized that far where it exceeds the earth-moon distance. The atmosphere thins down with distance from the earth. Beyond a distance we consider it as space. Initial perception of space was relational and exists in relation to matter. The gap (spacing) between celestial bodies is considered space. Subsequently the physical nature of space was realized. In the absence of matter the space becomes geometrical. The property of physical space without matter was conceptualized by making distortion of Euclidean geometry as well as introducing mathematical objects and events. The non-geometrical parameters (properties of space) were added to conventional three Cartesian coordinates to solve dynamics of matter in space. The 3D geometry is complete to locate the spatial location of objects and events. We do consider many other parameters such as mass for dynamics of matter along with 3D geometric parameters to solve different problems of dynamics. As long as the Euclidean coordinates are not tampered, the mental perception is not disturbed. The mental perception is natural, obeys the laws of nature. Any distortion to 3D geometry is unnatural; hence not a reality of nature. Our purpose is to understand nature in a natural manner but not impose man-made conditions to understand natural phenomena. Then only our understanding would be close to reality. As of today, we don’t have a universal concept of space. The significance of space changes for propagation of light waves, for resistance free motion in space and for space time curvature. In the light of the understanding in Vedic science this author considers space itself is physical [1] and this concept useful in justifying the motions of orbital bodies.

Tangential velocity profile of space fluid in the extranuclear space structure of a celestial body 

The space fluid (space structure containing space matter particles) in contact with the surface of a celestial body rotates at the same angular speed as that of the celestial body. It is for this reason we do not experience any relative wind speed due to rotation of the earth. For example, the earth rotating at an angular velocity ω has its lower space-structure (lower atmosphere) spinning at the same angular velocity ω. As the distance of space pocket from the earth increases, gravity decreases inversely as the square of distance but centrifugal force increases directly with distance for a constant angular velocity. The centripetal force (gravity) on an air pocket is given by: Gravitational attraction = (G M_EM_a)/R² And the centrifugal force on the air pocket (CF) is given by CF= M_aω²R’ (Where CF= centrifugal force; M_E = mass of the earth; M_a= mass of air pocket; ω = angular velocity of air pocket; R= radial distance of space pocket from centre of the earth.) When R increases, gravity decreases rapidly and CF increases linearly. At some distance (R=R_c), CF becomes equal to Gravity. Beyond R_c the CF is greater than gravity. Thus, the gravitational bond to outward space-structure breaks off thereby the torsional coupling for spinning the outer space structure vanishes. Thereafter the spinning speed of the outer space structure slows down due to its contact with non-spinning interplanetary space about the axis of the earth. When the spinning speed slows down, the CF reduces and gravitational coupling to outer space structure is re-established. The rotation of outer extra nuclear space structure beyond R_c is governed by brake & make of gravitational coupling. Thus, the spinning speed (the spatial tangential velocity v_t) of the space medium beyond R_cis given by the following equation. V_t = √ (GM)/R Prograde orbital motion The tangential velocity profile of extra nuclear space structure of a rotating nucleus celestial body is shown in Fig-1. The orbital body located in the extranuclear space structure within R₀ approaches the velocity of the space fluid where the centrifugal force is less than the gravity. Therefore, bodies located within R_c are not stable as they are gravitated onto the central body. But the bodies located beyond R_c gains their tangential velocity from the spinning spatial velocity where the centripetal force (gravity) and the centrifugal force are equal and opposite. The orbital bodies beyond R_c floats in the extranuclear space structure under zero gravity. All orbital bodies in the floating state acquire their orbital motion from the spinning motion of the space fluid of the central body. To visualize the phenomenon, throw some floating objects onto the water of a flowing river. It would be seen that all floats move in the direction of the flowing water (prograde) motion and not a single float has motion in reverse direction (retrograde motion).  Hence, the orbital bodies have the same sense of revolution as the direction of rotation of the central body where they are identified having prograde revolution.

Abstract

Analysis of orbital motion of an orbital body skips the correlation of orbital distances of all orbital bodies. If such a correlation exists and we ignore the same then we would be missing in our understanding the reality of our solar system. Thus, we assume the existence of a continuous orbit in the solar system even when the reality is the discrete nature of the orbit. This paper promotes the discrete nature of orbit and attempts to provide appropriate justification for the same. It also provides justification why the orbits are close to the ellipse, why the orbital distances are expanding order, and why the major axes of the ellipse of all orbital bodies of the central gravitating body are oriented in one direction. The newly identified celestial charge (non-electric charge) field has a great role in providing stability to orbital bodies.

Keywords: Atomic model, Atmospheric charge, Bode’s law, Celestial body.

Introduction

Every celestial body has an extra nuclear space structure which is associated with the nucleus due to mass-space attraction shown in Fig-1 [1]. Celestial body and its extra nuclear space structure form one integral system. When the celestial body moves, the extra nuclear space structure associated with the celestial body moves along with it and when the celestial body rotates the associated space structure also rotates along with it. The shape of the extranuclear space structure of a non-rotating celestial-body located in a uniform space density background is spherical (Fig.2).

Abstract

The planets make different motions due to interaction with the sun and satellites make different motions due to interaction with their planet. Therefore, the motions of planets are required to be expressed relative to the sun and the motions of satellites are required to be expressed relative to their planet for working out their dynamics. Minute observation of orbital distances of planets and satellites reveals the unnoticed orderly placement of planets and satellites in geometrical progression against the old concept of continuous orbit for the solar system. Lack of perception of proper dynamics of the oscillation of the axis of the earth with respect to the axis of the sun has made it convenient to express the orientation of the North Pole end of the axis towards Polaris, a distant star. The sun being the main interacting body for planets, the oscillation of the axis of the earth relative to the sun is the cause oriented therefore relevant for the sun-based dynamics. Further, many dynamic parameters of planets and satellites exhibiting common features and phenomena are not given due attention. Observation shows that, the orbital planes of planets are close to equatorial plane of the sun; the inclination of axes of planets with the normal to the equatorial plane of the sun are acute angles except for retrograde planets whose angles are obtuse angles; the outer satellites of Jupiter and Saturn exhibit retrograde revolution; almost all orbital bodies rotate and revolve in the same direction as the direction of rotation of the central body baring a few. The major axes of elliptical orbits of all planets are oriented towards one direction and the major axes of elliptical orbits of all satellites of any planet are oriented towards one direction. Some of these phenomena are not given due importance.

The dynamics of prograde motion of orbital bodies cannot justify the retrograde motion of orbital bodies. This may bread doubt on the very characterisation of retrograde motion. This author scrutinized the parameters of retrograde orbital bodies and identified the error in characterisation of the North Poles of retrograde orbital bodies. If the south pole of a planet/satellite is erroneously characterized as North Pole then the prevailing prograde motion of the orbital body would be erroneously recorded as retrograde motion. The paper gives emphasis on the discrete nature of orbit in the solar system and also discusses present erroneous characterization of some motions of planets and satellites.

Key Words: – Planetary motion, Trajectory motion, Celestial bodies, Planet and Satellites.

Introduction

We make different models of structure and functional mechanisms for systems in the unseen micro domain in the light of known structure and functional mechanisms perceived in the macro domain to understand the functioning of nature in the micro domain and their interaction on systems of the macro domain. If our understanding of the structure of the solar system is incomplete and defective then developing the planetary atomic model would also be defective and the model is likely to fail in justifying the structural stability and the spectral features of the atom.

The rotation of the sun makes its axis of rotation, direction of rotation, North Pole, South Pole, equator and equatorial plane. These parameters of the sun become the reference for characterizing the orbital and rotational parameters of planets of the sun. Such characterization is relevant for the gravity-based dynamics of the sun-planet system. Planet also rotates and forms its axis of rotation, direction of rotation, North Pole, South Pole, equator and equatorial plane. The revolution of a planet forms the axis of revolution, direction of revolution, north and south poles on the sphere of revolution and its orbital plane. These parameters of planets are required to be characterized relative to the sun for the purpose of dynamics because the sun is the main interactive body for the planets. Similarly, the orbital parameters of satellites are required to be characterized relative to their planet. We can specify the inclination of the orbital planes of planets with reference to the equatorial plane of the sun; the direction of rotation and revolution of planets with reference to the direction of rotation of the sun. These types of characterization of the motions of planets are relevant to the dynamics of interacting bodies. The dynamic parameters of a planet can as well be described relative to any non-interacting distant star but such a relative motion does not help in working out the dynamics of planets. The early concept (geocentric concept) was that the sun goes around the earth. This relative motion is not useful for the dynamics. The planets that go around the sun were discovered subsequently which helped in developing the gravity-based dynamics of the solar system. The orientation of the North Pole end of the axis of the earth is described with reference to Polaris, the distant star. There is nothing wrong in such relative characterization from an observation point of view but it is less important for the dynamics of the axis of the earth. We cannot find an answer as to why the North Pole end of the axis of the earth points towards Polaris? On the other hand, if the motion of the axis of the earth is described relative to the sun, then it would be found to oscillate with respect to the axis of the sun where the north and south poles of the earth alternately come nearer to the sun. The mean position of the axis of the earth is normal to the equatorial plane of the sun. The new characterization has scope of understanding why the mean position of the axis of earth is normal to the equatorial plane of the sun? And why does the axis of the earth oscillate about its mean position with reference to the axis of the sun? The dynamics of oscillation of the axis of the earth is discussed in a separate article in this issue of the journal. The dynamic parameters of planets and satellites have some common features and phenomena which have not drawn due attention. For example, the orbital planes of planets are close to equatorial plane of the sun; the inclination of axes of planets are acute angles except for the retrograde planets whose inclinations are obtuse angles; the outer satellites of Jupiter and Saturn exhibit retrograde revolution; almost all orbital bodies rotate and revolve in the same direction as the rotation of the central body baring a few. The major axes of elliptical orbits of all planets are oriented towards one direction and the major axes of all satellites of any planet are oriented towards one direction. According to this author, each of the exhibited phenomena has a definite cause which is answerable from dynamics. The dynamics of orbital bodies in prograde motion has limitations in explaining the retrograde motion which leads one to doubt on the very characterization of retrograde motion. In this regard this author identified the error in characterizing the North Poles of retrograde orbital bodies. If the south pole of a planet/satellite is erroneously characterized as North Pole then the actual prograde motion of the planet/satellite would appear as if having retrograde motion. This has happened in our characterization of retrograde rotation and revolution of planets and satellites though in reality, they have only prograde motion. All planets and satellites rotate and revolve in prograde i.e. same direction as the direction of rotation of their central body.

The orbital bodies of a central gravitating body exhibit a definite pattern of their orbital distances [1] showing discrete nature of orbit in the solar system. The orbital bodies also exhibit similarity in most of their orbital parameters. Some of these phenomena are simply noted without serious analysis. At present celestial dynamics of the solar system is confined to Kepler’s observation of planetary motion. This author feels it is required to justify the following features and phenomena of orbital bodies through appropriate dynamics.

• Why the orbital bodies in the solar system (planets and satellites) have orderly placement (in G.P. series) revealing the discrete nature of orbit in the solar system similar to that in the atomic system?
• Why does Mercury, Venus and all satellites don’t have any orbital bodies?
• What is the torque transfer link between the orbital body and the central body that ensures conservation of angular momentum of an orbital body? How exactly does the centripetal acceleration of an orbital body due to gravity increase the tangential velocity in conservation of angular momentum?
• The rotational motion and the orbital motion don’t have any bearing, so why do satellites have one rotation per revolution?
• Why do most of the orbital bodies revolve and rotate in the same direction as that of the central body?
• Why are the axes of orbital bodies near-perpendicular to equatorial planes of their central body?
• Why does the North Pole end of the axis of the Earth point towards Polaris?
• Why are the orbital planes near-parallel to the equatorial plane of a central body?
• The interplanetary space as conceptualised by Newton is free-space (relational space). Thus, the motions of orbital bodies do not experience any resistance to motion from the free space medium. Space is no more relational but physical, which is capable of rendering high frequency wave motion and guiding the motions of celestial bodies in the space-time curvature. One may wonder, why the physical space doesn’t offer any resistance to different motions of celestial bodies. If physical space offers resistance during motion of orbital bodies then there is an absolute need of a motive force that overcomes the resistance offered by the physical space.
• Why do the major axes of elliptical orbits of all planets orient towards one direction and the major axes of all satellites of a planet orient towards one direction?

The Present dynamics of celestial bodies need to be augmented for justifying the above phenomena. For the purpose of dynamics of planets in the solar system, the parameters of planets are required to be characterised relative to the Sun. Likewise, the dynamic parameters of satellites (moons) are required to be characterised relative to their planet. Thus, the inclination of orbital planes of planets are required to be characterised relative to the equatorial plane of the sun and the inclination of the orbital planes of the satellites are required to be characterised with reference to the equatorial plane of their planet. Similarly, the inclination of the axes of the planets are required to be characterised with respect to the axis of the sun and the inclination of the axes of the satellites are required to be characterised with respect to the axis of their planet. The above characterisation of orbital bodies is important for working out the dynamics of orbital motion, dynamics of inclinations of orbital planes and dynamics of inclination of axes etc.

Discrete Orbit in Planetary System

Examination of orbital distances of planets revels discrete nature of orbit in the solar system. Titus and Bode first proposed a correlation among the distances of planets known then which subsequently became known as Bode’s law. The law states: Take numbers 0, 3, 6, 12, 24, 48, 96 and 192 each of which apart from the first is double its predecessor. Now add 4 to each giving 4, 7, 10, 16, 28, 52, 100 and 196. Taking the earth’s distance from the sun as 10, these figures give the distances of the remaining planets with remarkable accuracy as shown in Table-1. When Uranus was discovered it fitted well into Bode’s scheme, thus Bode’s law was verified successfully. Further Bode’s law was productive in discovering the asteroid belt in the gap between Mars and Jupiter. However, Bode’s law doesn’t work for Neptune and Pluto and satellites of planets for which astronomers discarded Bode’s law. According to this author, a verified and productive law cannot be rejected even if it has some limitations. Bode’s law has the scope of identifying the discrete nature of orbit in the solar system which has a great value in discovering harmony between the atomic system and solar system. In view of the above, a serious attempt is required to be made in overcoming the limitations of the Bode’s law. In this regard, this author has developed a new mathematical correlation [1] which overcomes the limitations of Bode’s law.

Bode’s Law can be written in the following mathematical form.

D_n = (4+3 x 2ⁿ)/10   (1.1)

Where, Dn is the distance of the nth orbit from the sun   (except for the mercury) in astronomical units (AU)

n is an integer and can have values 0,1,2,3 ……….

We may generalize the expression by writing

D_n = (a + b cⁿ)k

Where, a, b, c are constants of the central gravitating body

K is the scale constant

ak is the distance of the mercury from the sun

The equation 1.1 can be written in the modified form as:

D’_n = z x 2ⁿ   (1.2)

Where,

D’_n is the distance of nth principal orbit of the central gravitating body measured from any (conventionally innermost) principal orbit/shell as the reference.

z    is the nucleus constant of the central gravitating body.

n    is an integer, having values 0, 1, 2, 3 ….