Abstract

Brahman, the ultimate reality and foundational concept in Vedic Philosophy, has intrigued philosophers and seekers for millennia.  This paper delves into the profound insights of Vedic Wisdom regarding Brahman, exploring its scientific implications and parallels with modern scientific thought.  Drawing from Vedic scriptures, including the Vedas, Upanishads, and other classical texts, we unravel the multifaceted nature of Brahman and its significance in understanding the fundamental essence of the universe.

Introduction: Unravelling the Mysteries of Brahman in Vedic Philosophy

Brahman, the foundational concept in Vedic Philosophy, stands as a beacon of profound wisdom, inviting seekers to delve into the deepest mysteries of existence.  Across millennia, sages and scholars have contemplated the nature of Brahman, recognizing it as the ultimate reality that transcends all limitations and boundaries.  In the intricate tapestry of Vedic scriptures, including Vedas, Upanishads, and various philosophical treatises, Brahman emerges as the central theme, guiding humanity on a quest for truth, knowledge, and enlightenment.

At its core, Brahman defies conventional understanding, eluding precise definition or conceptualization.  Yet, through the rich tapestry of Vedic wisdom, glimpses of Brahman’s essence emerge, offering insights into the nature of reality, consciousness, and the universe itself.  In the pages of ancient texts, we encounter profound slokas, sutras, and verses that beckon us to explore the depths of Brahman’s mysteries and unravel the cosmic secrets it holds.

The exploration of Brahman transcends mere intellectual inquiry; it encompasses a journey of spiritual discovery, a quest to apprehend the underlying unity that permeates all existence.  As we embark on this journey, we encounter a tapestry of philosophical insights, metaphysical revelations, and contemplative reflections that illuminate the path toward understanding Brahman’s nature and significance.

In this paper, we embark on an odyssey into the heart of Vedic Philosophy, seeking to unravel the mysteries of Brahman and explore its implications for contemporary understanding.  Through a meticulous examination of key Vedic references, slokas and sutras, we endeavor to discern the scientific underpinnings of Brahman and its resonance with modern scientific thought.

Our journey begins with an exploration of Brahman’s portrayal in Vedic Scriptures, delving into foundational texts such as the Chandogya Upanishad, Taittiriya Upanishad, Mandukya Upanishad, and verses from Rig Veda and Brahma-sutra or Vedanta Darshan.  These ancient texts serve as windows into the cosmic panorama of Brahman, offering glimpses of its omnipresence, transcendence, and essential attributes.

As we navigate the labyrinthine corridors of Vedic Wisdom, we encounter profound insights into Brahman’s relationship with consciousness, cosmology, and the fabric of existence itself.  We draw parallels between Brahman and contemporary scientific concepts, exploring its implications for unified field theory, quantum entanglement, consciousness studies, and cosmological evolution.

Through our inquiry, we seek not only to unravel the mysteries of Brahman but also to bridge the realms of philosophy and science, forging connections that transcend cultural, temporal, and disciplinary boundaries.  In the convergence of Vedic wisdom and modern scientific inquiry, we find echoes of a universal narrative, inviting us to explore the interconnectedness of all phenomena and the fundamental unity that underlies the cosmos.

As we embark on this intellectual odyssey, we invite readers to join us in a journey of exploration, contemplation, and discovery.  Together, let us unravel the mysteries of Brahman and delve into the profound insights of Vedic Philosophy, illuminating the path toward a deeper understanding of ourselves, the universe, and the timeless truths that transcend the boundaries of time and space.

Janmadyasya Yatah. Ref. Vedanta 1.1.2. 

Meaning: From which everything – the origin, sustenance and dissolution etc. of this world proceed. Or in other words, it is the passage of Taittiriya Upanishad III -: Bhrigu Varuni went to his father Varuna saying – “Sir, teach me Brahman.”  Varuna said: “that from whence these beings are born, that by which, when born they live, that into which they enter at their death, try to know that. That is Brahman.

You will attain self-realization through meditation on Brahman or the truths declared by Vedantic texts and not through mere reasoning.  Pure reason (Suddha Buddhi) is a help in self-realization.  It investigates and reveals the truths of the scriptures.  But perverted intellect (Viparita Buddhi) is a great hindrance.  It keeps one far away from the truth.

That which is the cause of the world is Brahman.  This is Tatastha Lakshana.The origin, sustenance and dissolution of the world are characteristics of the world.  They do not pertain to the eternal unchanging Brahman.  Yet these indicate Brahman which is the cause for this universe.  Shrutis give another definition of Brahman.  This is a description of its true, essential nature “Satyam Jnanam Anantam Brahma – Truth, Knowledge, and Infinity is Brahman.  This is Swarupa Lakshna.

Brahman in Vedic Scriptures:

Brahman, the ultimate reality and foundational concept in Vedic Philosophy, intricately woven throughout the rich tapestry of Vedic scriptures, including the Vedas, Upanishads, and other philosophical texts.  In these ancient texts, Brahman is depicted as the transcendent, omnipresent, and immanent force that underlies all of creation.

1. Rigveda: 

• The Rigveda, the oldest of the Vedas, contains hymns and verses dedicated to various aspects of the divine.  While Brahman is not explicitly named in the Rigveda, many hymns allude to the concept of a supreme, all-encompassing reality that transcends the material world.

“Ekam Sad Vipra Bahudha Vadanti” – This sutra can be traced in Rigveda and the Upanishads. The meaning is One Truth is worshipped in different names. And truth means Yat Asti, Yat Abadhitam – which is there and cannot be negated in any circumstances of time (past, present, future, time and space) is the truth or Eeswara. And the all else are subject to change or Naswara.

2. Yajurveda:

• The Yajurveda contains sacrificial formulas and rituals, but it also includes philosophical insights into the nature of reality.  Brahman is often invoked in prayers and rituals as the cosmic principle that sustains and permeates the universe.

3. Samaveda:

• The Samaveda consists of melodies and chants derived from the Rigveda, and it also contains philosophical reflections on the nature of existence.  Brahman is praised as the source of all melodies and rhythms, symbolizing the harmony and order inherent in the cosmos.

4. Atharvaveda:

• The Atharvaveda includes hymns and incantations for various practical purposes, such as healing and protection.  Brhaman is invoked in these rituals as the ultimate source of power and wisdom, embodying the divine essence that pervades all aspects of life.

5. Upanishads:

• The Upanishads, are the philosophical texts that form the concluding portions of the Vedas, delve deeply into the nature of Brahman and its relationship to the individual self (Atman).  In texts like the Chandogya Upanishad, the Taittiriya Upanishad, and the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, Brahman is described as the unchanging reality that underlies the ever-changing world of appearances.

6. Bhagavad Gita:

• The Bhagavad Gita, a sacred text revered by Hindus worldwide, presents a dialogue between Lord Sri Krishna and the warrior Arjuna on the battlefield of Kurukshetra.  In the Gita, Brahman is identified as the ultimate goal of spiritual realization, and the path to realizing Brahman is through selfless devotion (Bhakti) and inner transformation.

7. Brahma-sutras:

• The Brahma-sutras, attributed to the sage Vyasa, are aphoristic statements that systematically analyze the teachings of the Upanishads.  In these sutras, Brahman is expounded upon as the cause of creation, preservation and dissolution, transcending the limitations of time, space, and causation.

In Summary, Brahman pervades the entire fabric of Vedic scriptures, serving as the central theme around which the philosophy, rituals and spiritual practices revolve.  It represents the ultimate reality that transcends the dualities of existence, inviting seekers to delve into the depths of consciousness and realize the underlying unity that binds all of creation.

Here are few referenced slokas from Vedic Philosophy on Brahman:

1. Chandogya Upanishad (6.2.1):

“Sarvam Khalvidam Brahma” – “All this is indeed Brahman.”

2. Taittiriya Upanishad (3.1.1):

“Satyam Jnanam Anantam Brahma” – “Brahman is truth, knowledge and infinity.”

3. Mandukya Upanishad (7):

“Ayam Atma Brahma” – “This self (Atman) is Brahman.”

4. Brihadaranyaka Upanishad (1.4.10)

“Tat Tvam Asi” – “You are That.”

This sloka emphasizes the identity of the individual self (Atman) with Brahman, highlighting the realization of oneness and unity.

Poorna Madah, Poorna Midam, Poornat Poorna Mudachyate,

Poornasya Poorna Madaya, Poorna Meva Vasisyate. (Brihadaranaya Upanishad 5.1.1.)

This sloka emphasizes the completeness and wholeness of Brahman, highlighting that Brahman is infinite and the source of all creation.

5. Bhagavad Gita (9.4):

“Maya Tatam Idam Sarvam Jagad Avyakta-Murtina”

“By me, in my unmanifested form, this entire universe is pervaded.”

“Sarvasya Chaham Hridi-sannivista.” (B.G. 15.15)

“I am seated in the hearts of all living beings.”

“Eeswarah Sarva Bhutanam.” (B.G. 18.61)

“God is everywhere in all creatures.”

6. Chandogya Upanishad (3.14.1):

“Yato Vaacho Nivartante Apraapya Manasaa Saha”

“From where words turn back, along with the mind, unable to reach it.”

This verse depicts Brahman as beyond the grasp of ordinary perception and cognition, transcending the limitations of the intellect.

These slokas encapsulate the profound insights of Vedic Philosophy regarding Brahman, portraying it as the ultimate reality that pervades the cosmos and underlies the entire fabric of existence.

Definition of Brahman, Eeswar and Bhagban with Vedic References:

Vadanti Tatvam Tatvidastatvam Yajgyanam Paramam Adwayam |

Brahmeti Paramatmeti Bhagban Iti Sabdyate || (Srimad Bhagbat 1.2.11)

Meaning: Leaned transcendentalists who know the Absolute Truth call this non-dual substance as Brahma, Paramatma or Bhagavan.

Brahman refers to the ultimate reality, the unchanging, eternal and all-pervading essence of the universe.  It transcends all dualities and limitations, representing the substratum from which all phenomena arise and into which they ultimately dissolve.

Ishvara or Eeswara:  

Yat Asti Yat Abadhitam – Tat Satyam, Tat Eeswaram Uchyate.  It means Eeswar is the synonym for TRUTH – that absolute truth which is not subject to change at all circumstances of time, space, present, past and future.  All else are Naswara or subject to change.

Bhagavan:  

Aisvaryasya Samagrasya Dharmasya Yasasa-Shriyam |

Jnana Vairagyoschaiva Shanam ‘Bhaga’ itirana || (Sri VishnuPuran 6.5.74)

This reference highlights Isvara’s omnipresence as residing in the hearts of all beings and emphasizes the qualities of sovereignty, righteousness, fame, beauty, knowledge, and renunciation as manifestations of Ishvara.  It concludes that whatever exists and whatever is unchanging is indeed the truth, Ishvara or Bhagavan. (‘Bha’ represents ‘Bhumi’ or Earthly sphere, ‘Ga’ represents ‘Gagan’ or Sky or Ether, ‘Va’ represents ‘Vayu’ or Air, ‘Aa’ represents ‘Agni’ or Fire, and ‘Na’ represents ‘Nira’ or Water – that all constitutes the whole existence is known as Bhagavan.  This is a synonym for the whole existence and the law which governs the whole existence.

Ishavasyam Midagwam Sarvam. (Isho-Upanishad 1.) Ishvarah Sarva Bhutanam – (Bhagabat Gita 18.61). It means the omnipresence Ishvara is residing in the hearts of all beings.

Brahma : 

Brihati Vringayati Iti Tat Brahma.  It means which is very big and from which everything manifests.

Scientific Implications of Brahman:

Brahman, as expounded in Vedic philosophy, hold profound implications that resonate with contemporary scientific paradigms.  While Brahman is traditionally understood as the ultimate reality transcending all phenomena, its conceptualization also offers insights that parallel modern scientific understanding.  

As we know, science is more than just a collection of facts and theories; it is a process, a methodology for uncovering the truths that lie hidden beneath the surface of reality.  It is a celebration of human ingenuity and collaboration, as generations of scientists build upon the discoveries of their predecessors, pushing the boundaries of what we know and what we can imagine.

Here, we explore the scientific implications of Brahman and its resonance with various branches of science:

1. Unified Field Theory (Physics):

• Brahman is often described as the unifying principle underlying the diversity of the cosmos.  In the quest for a unified field theory, physicists seek to reconcile the fundamental forces of nature into a single, coherent framework.  Brahman’s concept as the underlying unity resonates with the scientific endeavor to discover the fundamental laws governing the universe.

2. Quantum Entanglement (Quantum Physics):

• Brahman’s omnipresence and interconnectedness find parallels in phenomena like quantum entanglement.  In this phenomenon, particles exhibit correlated behavior regardless of spatial separation, suggesting a deeper underlying unity beyond conventional boundaries.  Brahman’s concept as the source of interconnectedness aligns with the interconnected nature of quantum particles.

3. Consciousness Studies (Neuroscience):

• Vedic philosophy posits consciousness as intrinsic to Brahman, permeating all aspects of reality.  In contemporary neuroscience, the study of consciousness remains a profound mystery.  Understanding Brahman’s relationship with consciousness may offer insights into the nature of subjective experience, perception, and the neural correlates of consciousness.  

4. Cosmology and Quantum Gravity (Astrophysics):

• Brahman’s portrayal as the creative source of the universe finds resonance in modern cosmology and quantum gravity theories.  Cosmologists explore the origins of the universe and the nature of cosmic evolution.  Brahman’s concept as the cosmic principle may inform theories of the multiverse, cosmic inflation, and the nature of space-time.

5. Complex Systems and Emergence (Complexity Science):

• Brahman’s manifestation as the source of complexity and emergence parallels the study of complex systems in science.  Complex systems exhibit emergent properties that cannot be reduced to the behavior of individual components.  Brahman’s concept as the underlying reality that gives rise to diverse forms of existence reflects the emergent nature of complex systems.

6. Information Theory and Entropy (Information Science):

• Brahman’s concept as the ultimate reality may find parallels in information theory and entropy.  Information theory explores the fundamental principles underlying communication and information processing.  Brahman’s concept as the substratum of existence may relate to the notion of information as a fundamental aspect of reality.

In conclusion, the concept of Brahman in Vedic philosophy offers profound insights that resonate with contemporary scientific thought.  While Brahman is traditionally understood in metaphysical terms, its implications extend to various branches of science, offering a holistic perspective on the nature of reality, consciousness, and the universe.  Exploring the scientific implications of Brahman invites interdisciplinary dialogue and enriches our understanding of the fundamental principles underlying existence.

Brahman and Consciousness: Exploring the Cosmic Connection

In the vast expanse of Vedic philosophy, Brahman and consciousness emerge as central themes that intertwine in a dance of cosmic significance.  Brahman, the ultimate reality, and consciousness, the essence of awareness, are intricately linked in the fabric of existence according to Vedic wisdom.  Understanding the relationship between Brahman and consciousness offers profound insights into the nature of reality, the self, and the universe.

Brahman, as expounded in Vedic scriptures, represents the transcendent, omnipresent, and immutable principle that underlies all of creation.  It is described as the substratum of existence, the source from which the entire cosmos emanates and into which it ultimately resolves.  Brahman is beyond attributes, beyond the limitations of time, space, and causality.  It is the unchanging essence amidst the ever-changing phenomena of the universe.

Consciousness, on the other hand, is the essence of awareness, the subjective experience of being.  It is the light that illuminates the mind, enabling perception, cognition, and self-reflection.  Consciousness pervades all levels of existence, from the simplest organisms to the most complex sentient beings.  It is the essence of life itself, the spark of divinity within each living being.

The relationship between Brahman and consciousness can be understood in several key ways:

1. Identity of Atman and Brahman:

In Vedic philosophy, the individual self (Atman) is considered identical to Brahman.  The Mandukya Upanishad proclaims, “Ayam Atma Brahma” – “This self is Brahman.”  This identity signifies that the essence of the individual self is not separate from the ultimate reality of Brahman.  Consciousness, as the essence of the self, reflects the consciousness of Brahman.

2. Cosmic Consciousness:

Brahman, is often described as the cosmic consciousness that pervades the entire universe.  Just as individual consciousness animates the mind and the body, Brahman’s consciousness animates the cosmos.  Every sentient being is a manifestation of this cosmic consciousness, reflecting the divine essence of Brahman within.

3. Transcendence of Individual Consciousness:

While individual consciousness is limited by the boundaries of the mind and body, Brahman’s consciousness transcends all limitations.  It is the witness consciousness that observes the play of creation without being bound by it.  Through practices like meditation and self-inquiry, one can transcend the limitations of individual consciousness and realize the unity of Atman with Brahman.

4. Unity of Subject and Object:

In the state of pure consciousness, the distinction between subject and object dissolves.  Brahman is the ultimate subject, the observer behind all phenomena, while individual consciousness identifies with the objects of perception.  Through the realization of Brahman, the subject-object duality is transcended, leading to the direct experience of unity and wholeness.

The exploration of Brahman and consciousness is not merely a philosophical inquiry but a deeply transformative journey of self-discovery and realization.  By understanding the relationship between Brahman and consciousness, one gains insights into the nature of reality, the interconnectedness of all beings, and the timeless truths that underlie existence.

In conclusion, Brahman and consciousness represent the essence of Vedic philosophy, offering a profound perspective on the nature of reality and the self.  Through the realization of Brahman, one transcends the limitations of individual consciousness and experiences the eternal bliss of cosmic awareness.  The journey towards Brahman – consciousness union is the pinnacle of spiritual evolution, leading to liberation (moksha) from the cycle of birth and death, and the attainment of ultimate freedom and fulfillment.

Brahman and Cosmology: Exploring the Cosmic Order

In the vast expanse of Vedic philosophy, Brahman and cosmology intertwine as profound concepts that shed light on the nature of the universe and its underlying principles.  Brahman, the ultimate reality, and cosmology, the study of the origin, structure, and evolution of the cosmos, offer complementary perspectives that illuminate the cosmic order and the interconnectedness of all existence.

Brahman, as described in Vedic scriptures, transcends the material universe and serves as the foundational principle from which all phenomena arise.  It is the ineffable, omnipresent, and eternal reality that underlies the ever-changing manifestations of the cosmos.  Brahman is beyond attributes, beyond the limitations of time, space and causality.  It is the substratum of existence, the source from which the entire universe emanates and into which it ultimately resolves.

Cosmology, on the other hand, explores the origins, structure, and dynamics of the universe.  It encapsulates theories and observations from various scientific disciplines, including astronomy, astrophysics, and cosmology.  Cosmologists seek to unravel the mysteries of the cosmos, from the birth of galaxies to the evolution of stars and the emergence of life.

The relationship between Brahman and cosmology can be understood in several key ways:

1. Cosmic Creation:

According to Vedic cosmology, Brahman is the creative source of the universe.  The Rigveda proclaims, “Ekam Sat Vipra Bahudha Vadanti” – “Truth is one, the wise call it by many names.”  This verse suggests that Brahman manifests in diverse forms, giving rise to the multiplicity of the cosmos.  Cosmologists explore theories of cosmic inflation, the Big Bang, and the formation of galaxies and clusters to understand the origin and evolution of the universe – as declared by Sri Krishna in Srimad Bhagvad Gita (10.8) – “Aham Sarvasya Prabhavo Mattah Sarvam Pravartate” – “I am the source of all spiritual and material worlds.  Everything emanates from me.”

2. Cosmic Evolution:

Brahman’s manifestation as the creative principle parallels modern cosmological theories of cosmic evolution.  Just as Brahman unfolds into the diverse manifestations of the universe, cosmologists study the evolution of stars, galaxies, and cosmic structures over billions of years.  The concept of Brahman underscores the interconnectedness of all phenomena, from the smallest particles to the largest cosmic structures.

3. Cosmic Order and Harmony:

In Vedic philosophy, Brahman represents the cosmic order and harmony that pervades the universe.  The Upanishads describe Brahman as “Satyam Jnanam Anantam Brahma” – “Brahman is truth, knowledge and infinity.”  This suggests that Brahman embodies the underlying principles of order, intelligence, and infinity that govern the cosmos.  Cosmologists seek to uncover the fundamental laws of nature that govern the behavior of matter, energy, space, and time.

4. Transcendence of Space and Time:

Brahman’s nature as transcending space and time resonates with cosmological concepts of higher dimensions and the fabric of space-time.  While Brahman is beyond the limitations of temporal and spatial dimensions, cosmologists explore theories of relativity, quantum mechanics, and string theory to understand the nature of reality at the cosmic scale.

In conclusion, the exploration of Brahman and cosmology offers profound insights into the nature of the universe and humanity’s place within it.  Through the lens of Vedic philosophy and modern cosmology, we gain a deeper understanding of the cosmic order, the interconnectedness of all existence, and the eternal truths that underlie the cosmos.  The journey of inquiry into Brahman and cosmology is a timeless quest for knowledge, wisdom, and the realization of the ultimate reality that transcends the boundaries of space, time and causality.

Conclusion

In the exploration of Brahman and its implications for cosmology, we embark on a journey that transcends the boundaries of space, time, and human understanding.  Brahman, the ultimate reality, serves as the foundational principle from which the entire cosmos emanates and into which it ultimately resolves.  Through the lens of Vedic philosophy and cosmological inquiry, we gain insights into the nature of existence, the cosmic order, and humanity’s place within the vast expanse of the universe.

As we contemplate the profound mysteries of Brahman and cosmology, several timeless slokas from Vedic scriptures offer guidance and inspiration:

1. Rigveda (1.164.46):

• “Ekam Sat Vipra Bahudha Vadanti” – “Truth is one, the wise call it by many names.”
• This verse from the Rigveda emphasizes the underlying unity amidst the diversity of creation, echoing Brahman’s transcendental nature as the singular truth behind the manifold universe.

2. Taittiriya Upanishad (3.1.1):

• “Satyam Jnanam Anantam Brahma” – “Brahma is truth, knowledge, and infinity.”
• This sutra highlights the attributes of Brahman, depicting it as the ultimate reality characterized by truth, knowledge, and infinity.

3. Chandogya Upanishad (6.2.1.)

• “Sarvam Khalvidam Brahma” – “All this is indeed Brahman”.
• This sloka from the Chandogya Upanishad emphasizes the omnipresence of Brahman, suggesting that the entire universe is an expression of Brahman’s essence.

4. Brahma-Sutra or Vedanta Darshan (1.2)

• “Janmadasya Yatah” – “From which everything starts, from where everything stays and where everything perishes at last is Brahma.”

As we reflect on these sacred verses, we recognize the timeless wisdom embedded within Vedic scriptures, guiding humanity towards a deeper understanding of the cosmos and the ultimate reality that permeates all of existence.  Brahman’s transcendental nature invites us to transcend the limitations of our individual perspectives and embrace the interconnectedness of all phenomena.

In the convergence of Brahman and cosmology, we find echoes of a universal narrative, inviting us to explore the interconnectedness of all existence and the fundamental unity that underlies the cosmos.  Through interdisciplinary dialogue and contemplative inquiry, we gain a deeper appreciation for the profound mysteries of existence and the eternal truths that guide us on our journey of self-discovery and realization.

As we conclude our exploration of Brahman and cosmology, may we continue to seek knowledge, wisdom, and understanding, embracing the timeless teachings of Vedic philosophy and the revelations of modern science.  In the quest for truth and enlightenment, may we be guided by the eternal light of Brahman, illuminating our path towards unity, harmony, and cosmic realization.

Through the timeless wisdom of Vedic scriptures and the ever-evolving insights of cosmological inquiry, may we journey towards a deeper understanding of Brahman and the infinite expanse of the cosmos, embracing the mysteries that lie beyond the horizon of human comprehension.

Here, the search begins and our affair with truth continues…

N.B.

From Atheism to Theism: Unveiling TRUTH in the realm of Reason and Faith

Embarking on a journey of self-discovery, I’ve transitioned from atheism to theism. This shift has brought a newfound sense of purpose, moral grounding, and a deeper connection to the intricate tapestry of life. Embracing theism has opened my heart to the possibility of a higher power, offering solace in uncertainty and enriching my perspective on existence. Acknowledging the logical possibility of a higher power adds a layer of intellectual depth to my belief system. Theism, with its moral framework, aligns with the human pursuit of meaning and ethical guidance. Embracing this shift doesn’t negate critical thinking; rather, it reflects a nuanced understanding of the complexities of existence. As I embark on this profound shift from atheism to theism, the search for truth takes centre stage in my evolving narrative. This transformation marks the beginning of a meaningful exploration, where reason intertwines with faith. My affair with truth continues, guiding me on a quest for understanding and deeper insights. I am eager to embrace the complexities of this journey, fuelled by a genuine desire for knowledge and sincere pursuit of authenticity. I promise and committed to maintaining a rational dialogue and embracing the intersection of faith and reason.

Bibliography

1. Lectures of Jagatguru-Uttam Shri Kripalu Ji Maharaj
2. Main Kaun Aur Mera Kaun –a Vedic Treatise by Jagatguru Shri Kripalu Ji Maharaj.
3. Srimad Bhagabat Gita
4. Srimad Bhagabat
5. Chandogya Upanishad
6. Taittiriya Upanishad
7. Isho-Uponishad
8. Rig Veda
9. Yajur Veda
10. Sam Veda
11. Atharva Veda
12. Brihat Aaranyak Upanishad

    13.. Brahma-Sutra or Vedanta

14. Sri Vishnu Puran
15. Lectures of Swami Mukundananda

Abstract

The term management is as old as human civilization. In Bharata, the concept of management has persisted since the Vedic period. Systematic management practices are found in ancient Indian literature. This literature elaborates on the concept of disaster management. However, the term management came into vogue in the modern period with the commencement of industrialization at the end of the 19th century and at the beginning of the 20th century. The main objective of ‘management’ was to acquaint the newcomers with the then establishing industrial life. Nevertheless, this term was used in the Vedic period to run the biggest industry called ‘nation’. Many ancient Indian texts deal with the disasters faced by a nation. Hereunder, we shall understand the idea of disaster management from the ancient Indian perspective.

In the Vedas, the words duḥkha, nipata, pidana, apatti / vipatti and vyasana were used for calamity or disaster. According to Sāṅkhya system of philosophy, disasters may be of three types: Ādhyātmika, Ādhidaivika and Ādhibhautika. Ādhyātmika calamities or disasters are caused by diseases, epidemics etc. ādhidaivika caused by nature, like floods, fire, earthquakes, tsunamis, storms, etc. and ādhibhautika disasters are caused by human errors like road accidents, plane crash etc. Vedic scholar Kauṭilya, in his Arthaśāstra, has summarized these three into two: Daivam (natural) and Mānuṣam (caused by human errors).

In the present paper, we shall discuss some of the disasters and their management as suggested by ancient Indians.

Daivam or Natural Disasters: Daivam or natural disasters in ancient India are categorized as those caused by fire (agni), water (aka), epidemics (vyādhi), famine (durbhikṣa), rats (muṣaka), etc. For Kauṭilya, there is no control over the daivam or natural vyasana. But for manusa vyasana, man is solely to be blamed. Thus, in ancient India, disasters happen either by misfortune (natural) or by wrong policies. Kauṭilya warns the king that it is his duty to protect his subjects from these disasters. Let us understand the ancients’ views regarding managing disasters caused by various natural and human factors.

Disaster caused by Agni (fire): The disaster caused by fire may be both adhidaivika (natural) and adhibhautika (caused by human error). For example, forest conflagration is natural, but the fire caused by short circuits in buildings, etc., is adhibhautika. Vedic scholars believed in the idea that prevention is better than cure, so they suggested preventive measures like firefighting implements, fire brigades, and standby provision of water to extinguish fires. In summer, cooking should be done outside homes or under the supervision of ten families collectively or being protected by ten firefighting implements. The roofs which are made up of grass or mats should be removed. Those using fire in their profession should stay in one place. House owners should live near the front doors of their own houses without gathering in one place. Kauṭilya is aware of the nature of people. In society, very few people are concerned with the calamities that fall on the nation. It is a general tendency to avoid one’s own responsibility as a citizen; hence punishments for not serving in such conditions are imposed in the Arthaśāstra. A punishment for the owner, not running to save the house on fire, the fine is twelve paṇas (it’s a silver coin with ¼ part copper in it) and six paṇas for the tenant (Kauṭilya, 2.36.23). In case the fire is caused by negligence, the fine is fifty-four paṇas, and the incendiary should be put to death by fire. In case of fire, if proper aid in cash or kind is not provided, then the punishment is one-quarter of a paṇa. The incendiary should be put to death by fire.

2. Disaster caused by water: According to Kauṭilya, disasters caused by water are the worst because a fire may destroy half of one village, while a flood affects many villages (8.4.4). Several preventive measures for the management of disasters caused by water have been suggested, such as habitats should be allowed to come up away from the level of floods, people living close to water should be made ready to leave their places if the water level crosses the danger mark, wooden planks, bamboos and boats should be kept ready to meet any eventuality. There should be a standby provision of rescue teams and rescue materials like gourds, skin bags, canoes, tree- stems and rope braids to rescue persons from flooded areas.  

Flood Warning: keeping a constant watch on the water level was an important point in management taken care of during the ancient period. There was a provision of punishment for those who did not go to the rescue even while being capable.

3. Disaster caused by epidemics of disease: As preventive measures, physicians with medicines were made available at the disease-prone areas or where there was a doubt of breaking out of epidemics. The environment used to be sanitized with the help of yajñas. In case of animal disease, the Nirājanā (cleansing) of places and yajña with medicinal herbs and shades and the belongings of animals was performed by directing particular deities. In disease, Kauṭilya compared the loss caused by the death of a layman and a chief person. For him, the loss of the chief is not bearable. This is because common people are in a very large number, but there is one chief among thousands, or not even one. Because of the high degree of spirit and intelligence, a common man always depends on him.
4. Disaster caused by famine: Between famine and disease, Kauṭilya opines that disease affects only one region and remedies can be found for it. In contrast, famine afflicts the whole country and leads to absence of livelihood for living beings which creates loss of the entire society. Following measures for the management of disasters caused by the famine were used to be taken. In case of drought, the king used to make a store of seeds and foodstuff and show favour to the subjects, institute the building of forts or water works such as constructing dams etc., with the grant of food; he should share his provisions with subjects or entrust the country to another king. Should seek shelter with allies, cause migration of people in that region where crops have grown, or settle along the sea, lakes or tanks. King started sowing grains, vegetables, roots, and fruits along the waterworks.
5. Disaster caused by rats: Managing rats or mice may appear strange. From the ancient period, Bharata was predominantly an agricultural country. Naturally, rats or mice were considered the greatest enemies. Mice were not only enemies in ancient times but also in the modern period. Mice are a really very serious problem faced by many countries even today. They decimate food on a large scale and are responsible for diseases like plague, leptospirosis, etc. We can see one example of a terrifying condition created by rats. On 23 June 2010, China faced a problem of rats. The river Yangtze got flooded on that day. The water

 level rose in Dangling Lake. The flood flushed out rat holes around the lake, triggering a literal rat race. Tan Lulu, one of the employees of National Geographic News from WWF, reported, “There are so many rats that you can kill three of them with one (strike). The report also mentioned the destruction caused by rats. According to that, rats have ravaged at least four million acres (1.6 million hectares) of farmland by eating roots and stems of trees. Ancient Indians were aware of the destructive power of rats, and hence, they included them in the national calamity.

Preventive Measures: Cats and mongoose were to be let loose. For catching or killing cats or mongooses, there was a provision of fine, also for not restraining dogs, except in the case of foresters. Grains were strewed, smeared with the mild of snuhi-plants, or mixed with a secret mixture. Taxes were levied on rats. The same measures are suggested for locusts, insects, birds etc.

Disasters caused as a reaction to our actions: The Vedas and Vedic seers have laid emphasis on living in harmony with nature, holding nature in awe and reverence. Not only with nature, have Vedas also spoken of the need for harmony with the universe, which is the habitat not only of man but also all animals, birds, insects, plants and vegetation.  The mutually supportive role of all living things is often mentioned as a crucial factor for a balanced social and harmonious existence. The ecological balance is inherent in the very process of creation. The Vedic seers stressed everywhere the need to live in harmony with the environment. The Taittirīyopaniṣad looks at the relationship between man and the environment in its totality and stresses complete harmony and interdependence between them in order to attain real prosperity. If we adhere to this Vedic principle, many of the disasters caused by human activities may be avoided. For example, disasters caused by avalanches, tropical cyclones, landslides, deadliest floods, deadliest heat waves, deadliest storms, tornadoes, and earthquakes are nothing more than a reaction to our actions. We blame the Earth for the death of millions. We also think of ourselves as the alpha beings on this land, governors and protectors. And yet, every now and then, our own incompetence and stupidity surface and show us we’re nothing more than a danger. Here, it may not be out of context to inform that ancient Indians have never talked about or dealt with the management of disasters like global warming, depletion of ozone layers, melting glaciers, avalanches, tropical cyclones, landslides, deadliest floods, deadliest heat waves, deadliest storms, tornadoes, earthquakes, etc.  This also shows that ancient Indians were more aware of the natural hazards while carrying out any activity for their benefit. They never exploited nature for their benefit, rather kept nature intact and safeguarded by their noble acts, often called ‘Yajña’. They desired peace, balance and harmony everywhere, whether it is in space, the outer atmosphere of earth, earth, waters, herbal plants, vegetation or trees. Echo of this attitude is traceable in the following mantra of the Yajurveda:

dyau śāntirantarikṣaṁ śāntiḥ pṛthivī śāntirāpaḥ śāntiroṣadhayaḥ śāntiḥ, 

vanaspatayaḥ śāntirviśvedevāḥ śāntirbrahma śāntiḥ sarvaṁ śāntiḥ śāntireva śāntiḥ sā mā śāntiredhi.

This is perhaps the reason why they never face the hazards of global warming, depletion of ozone layers, melting glaciers, avalanches, tropical cyclones, landslides, deadliest floods, deadliest heat waves, deadliest storms, tornadoes, earthquakes, etc., as the modern humanity is facing.

MÈnu–am, or man-made Disasters

In addition to the above-cited disasters caused as a reaction to human actions, there are some disasters that are directly caused by disastrous human activities. They may be cited as increasing pollution on land, water and atmosphere, chemical and nuclear plants, atomic, chemical and biological weapons, terrorism, riots, urban structure, transport accidents, nuclear power accidents, etc. Day by day, this list is increasing. Apart from war and the agitation of subjects, other human disasters did not exist during the ancient period. Obviously, disasters caused by wars and internal agitation are dealt with in ancient texts. A very systematic categorization of manmade disasters is done by Kauṭilya. In Vyasanādhikarikam, the topic that deals with disasters, Kauṭilya has broadly divided man-made disasters into two: 1. Internal agitation 2. External agitation. These two manmade disasters resulted in four types of threats to a nation. These four threats faced by the nation are:

1. External threat supported internally
2. Internal threat supported externally
3. External threat supported externally
4. Internal threat supported internally.

Surprisingly, presently, Bharat is suffering from the following threats – 1. External threats initiated by external sources; 2. External threats aided and abetted internally; 3. Internal threats in which foreign inimical powers try to fish in troubled water; 4. Internal inadequacies are also abetted by inimical forces within the Country. So, we can say that the threats modern India faces are nothing but the translation of the sutras 9.5.3 of Kauṭilya.

The classification of the dangers connected with traitors and enemies is also done by Kauṭilya. They are:

Mānuṣopatti- Mānuṣopatti has been divided into three types- Sudhāpatti, Amiśra and Paramiśra.

Sudhāpatti is āpatti from sedition and enemies. To prevent this, the king should not use force against the citizens. Why force is not to be used is explained by Kauṭilya. According to him, force cannot be used against many people, and in any case, if it is used, then it may cause another disaster. At the same time, he strongly supports the use of force against the leaders of these people. This force is categorized as:

1. Stratagem through kinsmen – In this type of punishment, seducing close relatives, such as a real brother, son from a maiden or wife of the person, against him.
2. Suppression by secret means – Deploying treasonable high officers with a weak army for different expeditions such as destroying foresters and enemy towns, establishing a district officer or a frontier officer in a region separated by a wilderness, and so on and so forth. On these expeditions, secret agents who are there in the army should assassin him and should declare that he was killed at the time of war.

This secret suppression also includes pleasure trips, arranging parties, etc. The list of measures is very big, but a few things are mentioned above.

 Amisra – When treasonable and non-treasonable come together, the Āpatti formed is called amisra. Misra is a mix. Here, there is no mixing of treasonable and enemy. To control Amisra, success should be sought through the non-treasonable. Because without support, it is difficult to attain success.

Paramisra – When allies and enemies come together, it is called Paramisrāpatti. Here, success is to be achieved by allies. This is because establishing peace with an ally, not an enemy, is easy. The preventive measures or how to tackle these apattis are discussed in full length, and for all types of threats, many measures are suggested by Kauṭilya. He firmly believes in the ideology that ‘people follow their leader’. Thus, in the suggestions for monitoring internal agitation, the king’s training comes first. Apart from that, appointing spies for surveillance everywhere within the country and outside the country, the appointment of village officers, etc., are suggested.

In external agitation, once again appointing spies to create a rift between enemy camps, securing friendship with loyal kings, and keeping the army and economy strong to check both the agitation, such are the suggested measures. We are not going deep into it as it all comes under the science of polity; only a few examples are mentioned above. This will be another topic of research. However, one thing is inexorable: natural and man-made disasters were discussed by ancient Indians from time to time.

Conclusion

The ancient Indian concept of disaster definitely goes with the modern ‘management’ ideas. If “Disaster Management” is a continuous and integrated process of planning, organizing, coordinating and implementing measures, then by ascertaining the disasters in the nation, the first management step is taken by ancient Indians as reflected in Kauṭilya’s Arthaśāstra. Once the disasters are fixed, mitigation, i.e. reducing the risk, begins. In both disasters, preventive measures were taken by ancient Indians, as also mentioned by Kauṭilya.

Resilience is an important point in disaster management. The dictionary meaning of the word resilience is ‘cheerful condition’. The Disaster Management Act, 2005 of our country and also the United Nations Strategy for Disaster Reduction (UNSDR) publication 2009 says the ability of a system, community or society exposed to hazard in a timely and efficient manner, including through the preservation and restoration of its essential basic structures and functions. Thus, by any means, resilience or re-bringing the same good condition that was there prior to the calamity should be the aim of the affected country. This is possible only when the suffering ones are supported morally and monetarily. In the case of drought, clear references for rehabilitation are available. We have seen that at a personal level, disaster is caused when the earning member suddenly dies. In such conditions, support should be given to the suffering family. In ancient India, such support was the essential duty of the state. There is also a mention of such support in the Arthaśāstra on both levels, personal and national. Kauṭilya has clearly stressed that if someone dies on duty, the sons and wife should get food and wages, and their minor children, old and sick persons should be supported. King should grant them money. Thus, on both personal and national levels, ancient Indians had idea of resilience.

 From all the above points, we can say that ancient Indians had a good approach to management, and they successfully dealt with disaster management as well.

Reference

1. www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disaster
2. Kauṭiliya Arthaśāstra Translated by Kangle, R. P, 2nd Edition, University of Mumbai, 1972.
3. Encyclopedia of Disaster Management, Introduction to Disaster Management, Board of Editors – Prof. Priyaranjan Trivedi, Jnanda Prakashan (P&D) in association with Indian Institute of Disaster Management, New Delhi – 110 002, 2007.
4. Encyclopedia of Disaster Management, M. H. Syed, Himalaya Book Pvt. Ltd, “Ramdoot” Dr. Bhalerao Marg, Girgaon, Mumbai – 400 004, 1st Edition, 2008.
5. Modh Satish, Citizens Guide to Disaster Management, Macmillan India Ltd, 1st published, 2006.
6. Murthy Raman K, Disaster Management, Dominant Publishers & Distributors, New Delhi – 110002, Revised – 1st Edition, 2004.

Abstract 

It is mostly believed that materialism is a form of philosophical monism adopted in western Circle over the last few centuries that propelled the growth and development of science and technology. The progress and prosperity that followed immediately influenced the human civilisation all over the world by changing our life and culture in great measure. This dominant world view has been so deeply entrenched in our psych today that inspite of its many adverse Impacts in the form of environmental pollution, global warming and climate change etc. afflicting and threatening extinction of life on earth; no immediate escape route seems visible. This reminds our ancient Indian Vedic wisdom, which fought successfully against the materialistic school of philosophy also being propagated at that time by establishing the supremacy of spiritual philosophy with the sacred pronouncement of “Basudhaiba Kutumbakam”.

In this article we would like to outline our ancient Indian philosophy based on materialism which was pursued by several schools of thought. Notable amongst them is the Charvak-Lokayata school, which we would highlight here summarizing its propositions and it’s far reaching influences,

Introduction

Materialism holds that matter is the fundamental substance in nature. All things and beings including life and consciousness are results of material interactions on their various possible structures and configurations, In other words mind and Consciousness are simply the by-products or epiphenomena of material processes such as the biochemistry of human brain and the nervous system, except which they do not have any independent existence, This concept directly contrasts with the objective idealism of Vedic philosophy where mind and consciousness was considered as the first order realities to which matter is subject and material interactions are secondary. Nevertheless Vedic seers and sages had the extreme luxury and freedom of reflecting on all aspects of the physical nature from all angles searching for the ultimate knowledge about the whence and whither of their existence. They pondered over the origin of the Universe, the ultimate source of all existence whether material or immaterial, the purpose of life and various other deep questions like all those. There were schools of thought that also rejected supernaturality, other-worldly entities such as the immaterial Soul and God as well as the concept of life after death etc. They were regarded as the most radical philosophical systems; whose primary philosophical impact came by the way of a rather scientific and naturalistic approach to metaphysics. They rejected the ethical systems grounded in super naturalistic cosmologies. Traces of materialistic thoughts also appeared in some of the Vedic orthodox schools such as Purva Mimamsha, Vaisheshika, Nyaya as well as Shamkshya Darshan, proposing atomism, the causal logical structure of reality and the concept of perceiving nature is its of dual aspects as Purusha – the spiritual one and Porkriti- the material one. But the most radical thoughts of materialism can be associated with the unorthodox schools of Charvaka – Lokayata besides to some extent of schools associated with Jainism and Buddhism.

Charvaka Philosophy

Charvaka philosophy is an ancient school of Indian materialism which is also known as Lokayata school of philosophy. This school used to hold that direct perception (Pratyakshya), empiricism and conditional inference are the proper sources of knowledge. Adopting philosophical Skepticism; it rejected all ritualism and spiritualism forwarding the only ethical obligation in the maximization of one’s own materialistic pleasure.

Charvaka and Ajita Keshakambali, the two founders of this school are said to have. established Indian materialison as a formal philosophical system. Some historians posit that Charvaka may have been one of the several atheists of the materialistic schools that existed in ancient India during 6^th Century BC. Though there are some evidences of such thoughts in Vedic era, the Charvaka school must be predated to the Astika schools and also must be predecessor to Subsequent contemporary philosophies of Jainism and Buddhism. The earliest Charvaka school whose texts still survive is of Ajita Keshkambali. He had systematised the ideas of earlier materialistic schools by setting them down in the form of aphorisms in 6th century B.C. But some others also claim that Brihaspati, author of the classic work “Brihaspati sutra”, was the original founder of Indian materialism. Much of these primary literatures have been lost mostly due to the waning of popularity in due course or otherwise. However, the teachings have been compiled from secondary sources such as these found in `Artha Shastra”, Sutras, epics as well as the dialogues of Gautama Buddha and Jaina literatures. There are some early Vedic references to Brihaspati and his followers suggesting their vigorous efforts against Vedic system of philosophy. Followers of Brihaspati were not only skeptical but were intentionally opposing the orthodoxism in favour of Vedic system of the time. One of their principal objections was the practice of repetitive chanting of verses of sacred texts without understanding their meanings. His followers adopted the doctrine of ‘Svabhaba’ rejecting the theory of causation and the notion of good or evil consequences according to ‘Karma’ principles. They provided a metaphysical frame-work for materialism of Brihaspati school indicating the rejection of Supernaturalism and ethical teachings. They did not believe to the eternal nature of reality and read feeling of reverence for gods. They believed in naturalism rejecting any platonic notion of essences like that of Shamkshya dualism. Shamkshya philosophy believed in the dualism by asserting there’re two realms of fundamental reality; Prakriti – the material one and Purusha – the immaterial one. But in Contrast, naturalism rejects the existence of the immaterial spiritual realm and suggests that all reality is encompassed by nature which is material only Brihaspati School adopted such naturalism by rejecting the existence of a spiritual realm around the beginning of the epic period (200 BC to 200 CE). They did not believe in the morality of action that causes either morally good or evil consequences. Eventually it raised its head as a free-standing philosophical system although it had once a weaker anti-Vedic beginning in the name of Lokayata school. It was Called Lokayata because it became prevalent among people representing the world outlook of common people. ‘Sada-Darshana Samuchaya’-the 8^th century Jaina literature, written by Haribhadra, mentions Lokayata as the Hindu school of philosophy where there is no God, no rebirth, no karma, no duty, no fruits of merit or sin. Thus, the term Charvaka Lokayata has been used to mention the traditional philosophical school of Indian materialism.

Expressing the moods and perceptions of the common populace of the-then Indian society, charvakas were sharply critical of the Vedic religion, Brahmanism and the ideology of the priests. The doctrine of Charvaka – Lokayatas can be summarised with the following propositions.

(1) Four material elements such as fire, earth, water and air, called Mahabhutas, are considered as the basis of all that exists. These elements produce all objects both material and immaterial like soul and consciousness and also give rise to all phenomena of nature by being spontaneously active with a force of their own inherent (swabhava) in them in combining to various specific forms.

(2)  Only ‘this world’ (loka) exits and there is no hereafter like after-death, Life is neither continued after death in the Brahman-Atman world nor can it be revived on this mundane world. Thus, the Charvaka’s dictum was: –

” Bhasmibhutasya dehasya

Punaragamana Kutah?”

Which means, how can a cremated body burnt to ashes become alive again? Therefore, it was further said that,

” Jabat Jébet sukham Jibet,

Runam Krutwa Ghrutam pibet.”

Which means, as long as you live, live happily maximizing a luxurious Life even on borrowings to live sumptuously with good food enriched with ghee and honey. “While life is yours, live joyously, none can escape Deaths searching eyes; when once this frame of ours they burn, how shall it ever again return?” This is the same statement of charvaka as put forward by S. Radhakrishnan in his own words. (Vol I, page 281) charvakas criticized the religious idealist, proposition that “Consciousness is the property of the immortal soul”. They insisted that Consciousness dies with the death of man, while the body is disintegrated into the four basic elements of which it was composed of. When man dies, the earthly element returns and relapses into earth, the watery elements return into water, the fiery element into the fire, the airy elements return into air and finally the senses pass into space.

(3) There are no supernatural or divine forces. The concept of God is simply an invention of the rich and the privileged class to dupe the poor and the under-privileged ones. Charvaka taught that just as any other religion, the religion of Brahmanison was untenable and harmful by distracting the attention and strength of the common man towards worshipping imaginary gods offering sacrifices to unknown divine forces. Religious writings were based on seer fantasies of certain group of privileged people.

(4) There is no soul in the sense of the religious cult. It is the matter for specific configuration that thinks rather than the Soul which does not exist independently of matter.

(5) The Law of Karma, which is about the redressal for both good and bad deeds, is nothing but an invention of idealist philosophers, the source of evil on the earth should be looked for in the cruelty and injustice existing in the society which lead to inevitable sufferings rather than its predetermined nature through the Karma of the previous birth called as “Prarabdha”.

(6) The only source of knowledge of nature is the sense perception, therefore direct perception through the five senses gives man genuine knowledge called as ‘Pratyakshyagyana’. Only that exists which can be directly perceived. That which cannot be perceived directly does not exist. Therefore, the religious essences like God, the soul or the heavenly Kingdom etc. cannot exist.

Charvakas also elaborated the sense perception of two kinds; external and internal, External perceptions are linked with the five sense organs, whereas the internal perception emerges through the action of reason in the ‘manasa’. Therefore, there are two kinds of knowledge. The first kind called ‘Pratyakhyagyana’ is the result of the contact between sense organs and the objects of the external world. The second kind of knowledge called “Parokshyagyana’ which arises through mental operations on the basis of the analysis of the sense data.

Glimpses of such elements of materialism are found for the ‘Nyaya Darshana’ of Rishi Aksapada Gautama as well as in the Baishesika Dashana of Rishi Kanada belonging to the same period in 3rd, Century BCE. Thus, materialism, no doubt, was present in varying degrees in all Indian philosophical schools, although it did not replace other ideologies. Because of its hedonistic attitudes and heretical religious views, followers of the spiritualistic schools were reticent on the subject of materialistic tendencies present in their own systems as well as in Charvaka-Lokayata system. Therefore Charvaka – Lokayata materialistic philosophy suffered marginalization.

Conclusion

Although materialism had not been widely accepted, its far-reaching influence on Indian philosophy as a whole cannot be denied. Since the Indian society starting from the Vedic era was a very open society of free thinkers, Philosophical systems thought systems were developed from various possible angles. In the Vedicera, the authority of empirical evidence carried little weight. However, at Subsequent times different orthodox schools like Nyaya Darshan, Baisherika, Shamkshya and Mimamsa including the unorthodox schools began to value the systematic and Cautions epistemology based on logical analysis, causal ordering and structure of the outer as well as the inner world. Traces of materialistic thought crept into the monolithic idealistic philosophy. Emphasis on empirical validation of Truth first appeared in the thoughts of Charvaka materialism. All these gradually led to the mindset that matter can be of some value in itself to ponder over even though it is not the fundamental entity of nature. This led to the concepts of atomism in Baishesika Darshama and many ground-breaking ones which seem so relevant today in the modern world. To speak explicitly most significant influence that materialism had on ancient Indian thought, was in the field of science, mathematics, Astronomy, Medicine and surgery as well as in technology.

References 

1. N. Barik and G. Das; `Mysticism and science- An Indian context’ Published by Notion Press, New Delhi (2022).
2. RadhaKrishnan S.; `Indian Philosophy – vol I & II, George Allen & Unwin Ltd London (1977).
3. Zimmer, W. R; Philosophies of India’, London (1957).
4. Max- Mueller, F.; “The six Systems of Indian Philosophy” Associated Publishing House New Delhi (1973).
5. Basam A.L.; ‘The wonder that was India’, Rupa and Co., New Delhi (1971).

Abstract

There is no restriction for a celestial body to act as a nucleus or an orbital body or a space matter particle. The planets which are orbital body in the solar system become nuclei in planet-satellite systems. Likewise, the sun, the nucleus of solar system, becomes a space matter particle in the galaxy. The new interpretation of extra nuclear space structures of a celestial-body and that of atomic structure in two different domains revel remarkable similarity. Again, realistic analysis of the extra nuclear space structure of solar system vis-a-vis galactic system also reviles the hidden similarity in the structure and feature of systems in two different domains. Thus, it is rational to think that the centrally organized systems in same domain as well as in different domains are similar in all respects. This is quite tempting to look for similarity of structure, feature and state of matter of nuclei of systems in different domains. This paper, examines the state of matter of the sun in the light of better-known structure of the earth. According to this author, the sharp boundary of photo sphere and the undisturbed photo sphere during explosive events of solar flare is a strong evidence for the solid/liquid state of the sun. Hence the sun is not a ball of hot gas/plasma. The paper discusses as to how the solid and liquid states of sun is feasible despite high temperature. Key words: sun, gaseous sun, neutral atom, charge start of sun, charge state of planets.

Introduction

In the present concept, the sun is known to be a hot ball of gas/plasma where the diameter of the photosphere is the diameter of the visible sun. The surface temperature of the sun is about 6000K (10,000^oF). Since solids and liquids cannot exist at this temperature, the sun is considered to be entirely gaseous. The gaseous sun is not an established fact from observation but a conclusion drawn following the laws of thermodynamics. It may be seen subsequently that the observed facts are strong evidence for solid/liquid sun and the new theoretical analysis justifies the stability of solid/liquid state of matter on the surface of the sun. It is seen that; the chromospheres and the corona exhibit dimensional variations while the shape of the photosphere exhibits no variation. Solar prominence is jolted out of eruptions from photosphere with violent phenomena whose effect can be felt as far away as the earth. Prominences are anchored to the Sun’s surface in the photosphere, and extend outwards into the Sun’s hot outer atmosphere, called the corona [3]. If sun is entirely gaseous then eruption from photosphere, like the volcanic eruption, is not feasible. The best and the most frequent observations of eruptions are made in H-alpha. It is observed that the H-alpha line of such a region is an emission feature rather than an absorption line as in the lower chromospheres, which indicates the emitting region is hot and dense. Again, an explosion taking place at the edge of the gaseous sun (photosphere) is likely to push matter in all directions as shown in (Fig.1). As shown in fig.1 the displacement of matter in different directions is not same due to the prevailing variation of density of gas in different directions.

Abstract

Unlike the atomic system, the solar system, planet system and galactic system are observable. We may not have to make any model to understand an observable system because the observed facts directly describe the truth. However, illusion in observation cannot be ruled out. We observe, the sun goes around the earth but this does not describe the truth. Thus, what we observe cannot always claim to be truth. We need to verify different aspects of an observation before we declare the observed fact as reality of nature. The earth goes around the sun is a verified truth from analysis of other observations. We have observed the structure of galaxies however, it is necessary to compare and analyze the observed structure of galaxy with the known structures of similar systems before accepting it as a reality. The conformed truth of different features of structure of centrally organized systems as revealed from the structure of solar system and planet systems can be summarized in the following manner.

The systems are similar in respect of nucleus, extra-nuclear space structure surrounding the nucleus [1], innumerable space matter particles within the space structure and few orbital bodies. The nucleus and extra-nuclear space structure form one integral system. The moving nucleus carries the extra-nuclear structure and a rotating nucleus rotates the associated space structure. The space matter particles in the spinning space-fluid go around the nucleus like the orbital bodies but the orbital bodies are large & few in number whereas the space matter particles are innumerable & they belong to finer domain. Galaxies are one domain up systems than the domain of solar system [2].  If the solar system is scaled up to the size of galaxy then all components of solar system would be scaled up by the domain change scale factor. After scale up the space matter particles (atoms and molecules) of solar system would assume the size of stars in the galaxy, the planets of solar system would assume the size of the so-called event horizon of orbital black holes and the sun will assume the size of so-called event horizon of the black hole as the nucleus of galaxy. If one assumes the stars are orbital bodies in a galaxy then the existing similarity between the structural features of galactic system and solar system would be lost. The innumerable space matter particles (atoms and molecules) in the extra-nuclear structure of sun and planets can only be compared with the innumerable stars in the extra-nuclear structure of galaxy. Again, few orbital bodies (planets) of the sun and few orbital bodies (satellites) of planets are comparable to few orbital black holes of the galaxy. If stars are erroneously accepted as the orbital bodies of the galaxy, the expected size of the nucleus of galaxy is drastically reduced from its real size confirming to the dimension of so-called event horizon of black hole. The nucleus of galaxy in the size of event horizon would naturally block the star-light coming from behind but for a nucleus with drastically reduced size would allow the said star-light to reach the observer on earth. Having accepted the reduced size of the nucleus of galaxy problem arises as to why not we receive the light from stars behind when it is not blocked by the nucleus (Fig.1a). The problem was resolved by advanced theory on gravitation of light where the massive nucleus of galaxy attracts the light passing close to nucleus. The distance up to which the gravitational pull is effective is known as the event horizon. But the reality is simple with the size of nucleus of galaxy confirming to size of so-called event horizon of the black hole (Fig.1b) where it does not require the elegant theory of black hole to explain the galactic phenomenon. The paper also discusses the reasons for not receiving the natural radiation from nucleus of galaxy similar to solar radiation. It also discusses how the outer stars of galaxy have higher orbital motion than the gravitationally predicted value without the consideration of hidden mass. We cannot directly examine the assumed random motion of space matter particles (atoms & molecules) in the extra-nuclear space structure of the sun or earth but we can observe the state of rest or random motion of space matter bodies in extra-nuclear space structure of galaxy. From the observation of the dynamism of stars in the galaxy, one can infer that the molecules in gas are not in random motion.  The author has explained his original work elsewhere [3] the laws of gas from the basic interactions of mass and space without the consideration of random motion of molecules.

Abstract

The unique vision of similarity between Pinda (human body) and Brahmandah (universe) is a vital doctrine of Vedic science.  Pindanda (Microcosm) is a reflection of Brahmanda (Macrocosm) as explained in Uttara Geeta, a conversation between Krishna and Arjuna. We also notice structural similarity among different centrally organized systems (galactic systems, solar system, planet-system, asteroid-system) having a central nucleus and orbital bodies. When Rutherford discovered the nucleus of atom, he was motivated to think that atoms have structures similar to that of solar system and proposed the planetary atomic model. This model however faced the problem of stability of electron and it failed to justify the spectra of atom. Electron being charge-particle would emit photon in circular orbit due to radial acceleration hence cannot remain stable in its orbit. Subsequently mathematical atomic models were developed deviating away from the uniformity of nature. The present atomic model does not bear similarity with solar system. This author gives importance to consistency and uniformity of nature and argues that atomic structure has complete similarity with the structure of solar system. The stability of orbiting electron and explanation to spectra of atom can be addressed by incorporating other features of solar system in the model. 

Discussion

Atom is a structural body and the properties of atom are revealed from its featured structure. We however cannot observe the structure of an atom directly as we do for solar system. An atom can be modelled in two different ways. 1) Atom can be modelled as miniature solar system considering uniformity of nature and the properties of atom such as the spectra can be justified from the prevailing natural structure. 2) Developing a mathematical model of atom from backward integration of the spectra. If the mathematical atomic model ignores the uniformity of nature, cause-to-effect analogy, common sense knowledge then the so developed atomic model is a deviation from reality of nature. 

A logical thought experiment recommends for structural similarity between solar system and atomic system. Consider two basically dissimilar systems. All attempts to find similarity between the systems would fail to find any similarity between them, just because similarity does not exist between them by precondition. On the other hand, consider two similar systems having complete similarity. While examining the systems some of the similar features may appear dissimilar due to improper comparison. In other wards some similar features may be erroneously concluded as dissimilar due to defective study. The very fact that both solar system and atomic system have nucleus and orbital body, exhibit the primary similarity of structure. If the planetary atomic model faces the problem of stability and experiences limitation in explaining the spectra of atom then, quite likely, some of the structural features of solar system might not have reflected in the atomic model. Hence the incomplete atomic model is expected to fail in providing structural stability as well as fail to render the spectral property of atom. 

We find the solar system is much more than the sun-planet system. Similarly, the terrestrial system is much more than the earth-moon system. The earth has different levels atmosphere, ionosphere, magnetosphere, Van Allen Belt etc. This author has identified the charge polarized shell features with variation of electric potential [1] in the extra-nuclear space structure (atmosphere) of the earth and further identified the unnoticed correlation of the distances of the shell features [2]. Further this correlation extends to the shell locations those houses the orbital bodies. There are also sub-shell features within shell structure [2]. The extra-nuclear space structure of a celestial body, say the earth contains molecular, atomic and sub-atomic space matter particles. Many of these details were not known when Rutherford proposed his planetary atomic model. Therefore, the space structure with shell features of solar system could not be incorporated in the planetary atomic model. When the solar system was scaled downed to atomic dimension, the nucleus celestial body (sun) was reduced to the size of the atomic nucleus; the planet was rightly reduced to the size of electron. But the atoms and molecules housed as space matter particles in solar system were not scaled down to particles of lower domain (micro-micro domain) to visualize the placement of light particles in the atomic model. This may be due to lack of perception to matter value of light particle (photon). This author has argued, though light particles have zero mass in atomic mass unit (AMU) but they have mass in photonic mass unit [3]. The photonic mass scale has not been explored to grant material status to photons. In reality the light particles are particle of matter and rightfully they have placement in the extra-nuclear space structure of atom [4] and in inter-atomic space. The planetary atomic model without the placement of light particles in extra-nuclear structure becomes an incomplete atomic model. Thus, it is natural for the incomplete planetary atomic model to fail in justifying the stability of atom and the spectra of atom. Instead of attempting to perfect the planetary atomic model, the natural model was unfortunately discarded. Subsequently, the result oriented mathematical atomic model was proposed with nucleus and electron which explained the spectra. One may wonder how the mathematical atomic model without the consideration of light particle is able to explain the spectra. We are aware how one artist with change of dress and dialog plays roles of two artists. Here in the atomic model, scientists have blessed many unrealistic boons (Empowerment by hypotheses) to electrons including the ability to play the wave-particle duality, access in responding the uncertainty-principle, supernatural power for creation and annihilation of light particles (photons) and to perform the magic of tunnelling etc. A real electron is expected to perform in a natural manner but the electron in mathematical atomic model is made to perform in an unnatural manner when it proxies the less known functional role of the fine structure composed of photons. The electron in mathematical atomic model represents its self-existence and unknowingly photons therefore hypothetical. 

When a person comes out of a house, we take it for granted that the person was very well present within the house from where he came out. This logic is also valid in the ionization of a neutral atom where the in-house electron is knocked out from atomic structure. Such type of explanation is not acceptable when photons are released from an excited atom because photons do not have rest existence in atomic model. The modelled extra-nuclear structure of atom is composed of electrons only. Thus, the cause of release of photons can only be attributed to electrons as nothing other than electron exists there. It was conceptualized that when electron jumps from higher energy state to a lower energy state, the difference of energy is released in the form of photons. Understanding the mechanism by which electron creates photon is beyond the scope of modern science. On the other hand, a real atomic structure contains photon in its extra-nuclear structure as space-matter particles from where they are released. The space matter particles organize fine structure with shell features. Photons at discrete energy levels are released from peaks of shells [7] [8] when the atom is excited to ionization potential.

The author has discussed elsewhere [5] the cause of electric charge electric charge and how non-electric charge exists in matters of other domains (photonic charge in micro-micro domain particles and celestial charge exists in macro celestial bodies) due to the same cause. This author has also discussed how charge is state property of matter. The charge state is revealed through charge potential difference between system and surrounding. If the space charge potential of a shell is same as that of the orbital body/particle, then the orbital body/particle remains in charge neutral state [5]. When the electron comes out of atom and becomes free then it exhibits its charge state in the inter-atomic space. Hence the orbital electron in circular orbit though executes radial acceleration do not radiate energy (photon) being a neutral particle with reference to its shell. A natural orbital body can have its orbital motion due to spinning motion of the associated extra-nuclear space structure. The extra-nuclear space structure remains associated to the nucleus due to mass-space attraction and rotate with the rotating nucleus [4]. A non-rotating or slowly rotation celestial body will have a non-spinning or slowly spinning extra-nuclear space structure. Orbital bodies floating in extra-nuclear space structure cannot acquire its desired tangential velocity and will be gravitated towards the nucleus. Mercury, Venus and all satellites of all planets do not have an orbital body which makes clear the role of space structure in the orbital motion of bodies (orbital bodies). Hence an electron in circular orbit does not radiate energy (photon) and remain stable in its orbit. Now Rutherford-Bohr atomic model appears feasible and the model assumes similarity among systems in different domains of nature. The sub-orbits of principal orbit have scope to explain the fine spectra of atom. The polarized space structure has also the scope of explaining the splitting of spectra by electric and magnetic field. The centrally organized structure of solar system and atomic system can be made universal to understand the structure of light particles in finer domain.

If an atomic system is a miniature version of solar system then all features of solar system should find a place in the atomic system and all component matters of solar system has to be scaled down by the same scale for realizing their existence in atomic system. For example, the nucleus of atom is one domain down version of the sun; the electron is one domain down version of planet; the light particle (the space matter particle of atomic system) is required to be one domain down version of atom, the space matter particle in solar system. The radiation phenomenon of the sun is required to be featured in atomic system and for that photon, the radiation particle of sun, need to be scaled down by one domain change of scale to realize the new micro-photon radiation from atomic nucleus. At present we are ignorant about micro-photon and the radiation from atomic nucleus. Thus, it is accepted that atomic nuclei do not radiate energy. Such a concept makes an undesirable presumption that energy radiation takes place through photons only. Again, the doctrine of Lord Buddha that birth, decay and death is a universal truth of nature and there is no escape to these phenomena. How can the non-radioactive atoms and molecules escape from decaying? The decay of human body takes place due to decay of its constituent cells but we fail to understand how the cells decay without decay of atoms and molecules. One may wonder how atom would be stable if its nucleus decays! The rate of decay of atomic nucleus is comparable to the rate of decay of the sun, the nucleus of solar system. Hence like the solar system the atom remains stable for a pretty long period. The decay of a coordinated structure built up by atoms slows down by replacement of fresh atoms and molecules like the formation of new cells replacing the dead cells in human body. The mechanism of decay of a system is linked to the transformation taking place in finer and finer domains. The subject of decay can be addressed properly only after understanding the natural structure of atom with coexisting structures in finer domains.

The emission of discrete spectra from extra-nuclear space structure of atom cannot be compared with the continuous-spectra of solar radiation, while examine similarity. Again, the sun radiates in its natural state whereas the atom emits its discrete spectra when excited. How can these diverse phenomena be compared in finding similarity? The natural radiation of sun can only be compared with less known natural radiation of micro-photons from atomic nucleus. The emission of discrete spectra of solar system can be examined by external excitation of the extra-nuclear structure of the solar system. This is a tough experiment. However, this author has shown elsewhere [6] the discrete emissions from the shell structure of solar system while the Haley’s comet crosses and interacts with the shells and sub-shells of solar system. Thus, both continuous-spectra natural-radiation from nucleus and discrete spectral emissions from extra-nuclear structure under excitation are common phenomena in all centrally organized systems. Different centrally organized systems say the solar system and the atomic system would be found similar if the comparison is made properly. On the other hand, a defective comparison would conclude the above systems are dissimilar. 

We carry the concept that electrons are identical thus the orbital electrons in atomic model have same size. On the other hand, we find the orbital planets have different sizes. Hence one would argue the solar system and atomic model cannot be similar. The unit charge of electron has been established experimentally from Millikan oil drop experiment. Experimental finding cannot go wrong. However, interpretation of experimental result may go wrong. This author argues that there is enough scope in Millikan experiment to show that charge and mass of electron can vary simultaneously for a constant ratio of charge to mass (e/m). Variation of mass and charge of electron is more likely from following observation. We find galaxies are of different sizes; the stars are of different sizes; planets are of different sizes; satellites are of different sizes; asteroids are of different sizes, the pebbles are of different sizes; sand-grains are of different sizes; atoms are of different sizes, even one type of atom has many isotopes. Therefore, the electrons also have a range of sizes which erroneously is considered invariant. The so-called fundamental particle of one time becomes a structural body with advancement of knowledge. It may not be proper to grant the fundamental particle status to electron having unit charge with fixed mass. One can assume identical nature of electrons for mathematical analysis event and get the quantitative result but the reality differs. To realize this, consider a packet of sand particles. On counting the sand particles in a packet, we may find the number of sand grains is n. If the mass of sand particles in the packet is M then the average mass of the sand particle is M/n. If one assumes that the sand particles are identical and each has a mass M/n then one would calculate the mass of sand packet as (M/n) n=M, the other person by computing the actual masses of individual sand particles also get the same mass M. By taking another volume of sand, the average mass of sand grain remains unchanged. This erroneously establishes the mass of every sand grains is same and having its mass as M/n. We find there is a difference between the assumed value and the reality. Even though mathematical concept gives quantitative result but the reality is different.

Conclusion

Finding similarity between solar system and atomic system has far reaching consequence.  The similarity of structure can be conceptualized from similarity of dynamics. Again, force is the cause of any dynamics. Therefore, similarity of dynamics of centrally organized systems of different domains helps to find the unique cause of all fundamental forces of nature. Thus, the fundamental forces can be unified from a common cause. This author has already proposed the possible cause of electric charge in fundamental particles and suggested the existence of non-electric charge in matters of other domains. It is further expected that many unrealistic hypotheses made exclusive for micro domain may disappear and the vital cause-to-effect analogy can be established in all domain of nature. This new approach will bring uniformity of nature in all its domains. 

This article is a part of the original work published in the book “Universal Mystery Unfolded”, Volume-3 of the series “Dynamics of universe; interplay of matter, space and charge”, 2012 by the same author.

Reference

1. Natural electric charge structure in earth and its atmosphere (page no.53), Planetary Electrodynamics- I, Dynamics of Universe interplay of matter, space and charge, vol.1, ISBN [81-900989-0-X].
2. https://philosophyofnature.org.in/extrapolation-of-bodes-lawtowards-unravelling-the-mysteries-of-the-solar-system/.
3. https://philosophyofnature.org.in/towards-a-new-comprehensive-universal-science/.
4. https://philosophyofnature.org.in/different-domains-of-nature/.
5. https://philosophyofnature.org.in/electric-and-non-electric-charges-and-their-inter-conversion/.
6. https://philosophyofnature.org.in/transit-of-halleys-comet-and-identification-of-the-shell-structure-in-solar-system/.
7. Mechanism of release of different energy-level photons from peaks of atomic shells (no creation of photon), (page no.337), Universal Mystery Unfolded, Dynamics of Universe interplay of matter, space and charge, vol.3, ISBN [978-81-89726-68-3].
8. New Model of Atomic Structure, Universal Mystery Unfolded, Dynamics of Universe interplay of matter, space and charge, vol.3, ISBN [978-93-85798-93-1].

Abstract

The vertical temperature distribution in the atmosphere of the Earth and other celestial bodies reveals a kind of thermal polarisation in the structure of atmosphere. Such a thermal structuring exhibiting temperature inversion is only feasible if the thermal charge phenomenon has a similarity with the electrical charge phenomenon. This article discusses the vertical temperature gradients in the atmospheres of the Earth, the Sun and other planets with an objective to understand temperature as thermal charge potential of non-electric charge (thermal charge).

 

Subject key words: atmosphere, thermal structure of atmosphere, temperature inversion, solar atmosphere, atmosphere of Earth, planetary atmosphere.

Introduction

There exists a definite pattern of global thermal charge potential (temperature) in the atmosphere of the Earth and that in other celestial bodies. The thermal charge potential structure of the atmosphere of the Earth is shown in (Fig.1). It may be seen from the figure that the heights of the layers of atmosphere having minimum and the maximum temperatures bears a correlation which shows that the basic cause of temperature stratification in any given layer is not due to an independent local phenomenon. At present, the cause of the specific temperature of the specific layer is ascribed to some local physical and chemical interactions. We have not made a comprehensive study to know the bearing among different layers and understand why the thermal structures of different celestial bodies have a remarkably uniform pattern.

 

Abstract

Electric phenomena in atmosphere of the earth and other celestial bodies are quite conspicuous. Ionisation of atmospheric constituents by solar ionising radiation, external cosmic rays and rays from radioactive materials as well as the direct entry of charge particles from the solar wind and their guided motion in the geomagnetic field goes to explain the electric phenomena of the atmosphere of the earth. The present ionospheric studies allow the ionospheric shells to be quasineutral. As of today we do not assume any of the ionospheric shells to be negatively or positively charged. In contrast to the present understanding, this paper identifies the specific charge state of different ionospheres and their nature of placement. A remarkable correlation of alternate reversal of charge polarity and the outwardly expanding ion shell spacing in GP series has been worked out based on data available in literature.