Issue 2 Archives - Institute of Philosophy of Nature

Charge Structure in Clouds and Lower Atmosphere

Bishnu Charanarbinda Mohanty — Mon, 25 Dec 2023 12:20:44 +0000

Abstract

Extensive studies have been carried out to understand the mechanism of thunderstorm electricity. Despite the use of modern measurement techniques and advanced theoretical treatment, the significant physics in micro and macro scales are still not clear. Besides the thunderstorm electricity, fair-weather electric field has been well recorded. The author considers the charge state of the surface of the earth and its atmosphere to be more fundamental. The charge polarisation of the atmospheric shells provides an appropriate answer to the fair-weather field. The fair-weather global field undergoes modification with the formation of cloud in the field medium. This new consideration agrees well with the observed electric structure in the cloud.

Key words: Thunderstorm electricity, Fair-weather electricity, Air-earth current, Cloud precipitation, Precipitation model of cloud charging, Convection model of cloud charging, Tripole electric structure.

Introduction

Benjamin Franklin in the year 1752, for the first time demonstrated that lightning bolt is a giant electric discharge. This means, lightning is a transfer of either positive or negative charge from one region of the cloud to another or between the cloud and the earth. Since then, numerous investigations have been carried out to understand the mechanism of electrification of cloud. Despite the use of modern equipments, advanced techniques and improved theoretical treatment, the origin of electrification of clouds remains elusive. Even today, the significant physics for both in micro and macro scales is missing [1].

A cloud having the positive charge at the uppermost region and the negative charge in the lowermost region is conventionally known to have a positive dipole electric structure and the cloud with a reverse polarity charge has negative dipole structure. Prior to 1885 Julius Elster and Hans. F. Geitel for the first time proposed the precipitation hypothesis to explain the positive dipole structure in cloud. The hypothesis assumes that rain drops; hailstones and gaupel particles (millimetre to centimetre size ice pellets) in thunder cloud are pulled by gravity downward which passes through the air containing smaller water droplets and ice crystals in suspension [2]. This permits collision of precipitated particles with the mist of water droplets and ice crystals where it is conjectured that negative charge is transferred to the precipitated particles and positive charge to the mist. Due to the negative charge of the precipitated particles, the lower part of the cloud accumulates negative charge while the upper part accumulates positive charge (Fig.1). By this explanation, the charge structure in cloud was justified to have a positive dipole as a regular feature.

In 1920 Wilson made observations of a large number of thunder storms from a distance by measurement of electric field produced by a charged cloud and inferred that the basic structure of thunder cloud was that of a positive dipole. At about the same time Simpson made measurements of charge on the rain falling from the thunder cloud and concluded that the lower region was positively charged while the upper was negatively charged. This Wilson – Simpson controversy could not be resolved for about 50 years, till observations established that the basic structure is not dipolar but tripolar [3]. While the Wilson-Simpson controversy was going on, a new convection hypothesis was independently suggested by Gaston Grenet in 1947 and Bernard Vonnegut in 1953 to explain the dipole structure of thundercloud. In this model the positive ions formed by the corona discharge from the sharp objects on the surface of the earth are carried upward by warm air (convection) like the belt of the Van de Graaf Generator [3]. After reaching the upper region of the cloud, these positive ions attract the negative ions above the cloud which are formed by ionizing cosmic rays. The negative ions enter the cloud and quickly attach themselves to the water droplets and ice crystals, thereby forming a negatively charged “screening layer”. By hypothesis the down drafts at the cloud periphery then carry downward the negatively charged particles from the screening layer. This leads to the formation of positive dipole [3] structure (Fig.2). It may be mentioned here that both precipitation and convection hypotheses were developed to explain the positive dipole structure known by then. They, however, faced serious limitations in explaining the tripole structure observed subsequently.

It is now established beyond doubt that the basic structure of thundercloud is not dipolar but tripolar [3]. The important feature of the tripole structure is described here with reference to Fig.3. There is a main region of negative charge in the central zone with one region of positive charge above it and a second smaller region of positive charge below it. The remarkable features of the negatively charged main layer are having pancake [4] shape with its vertical thickness less than a kilometre. On the other hand, the main negative charge extends several kilometres or more horizontally.

The main negative charge is located at an altitude of 6 km. Very large electric fields are seen in thunder clouds at upper and lower boundaries of this negatively charged layer. The upper region of positive charge is more diffused and may extend vertically several kilometers up to the top height of the clouds. The lower region of positive charge, on the other hand, is so small that the electric field at the surface is frequently dominated by the main negative charge. One additional feature is also seen in many clouds where a thin layer of negative charge of about 100 meters thick is found above the upper positive region. The tripolar structure of the cloud resolved the long-standing Wilson – Simpson controversy.

Wilson made electric field measurement from a distance where the small positive region at the base of the cloud was overwhelmed by the strong negative field produced by the main negative charge. On the other hand, Simpson’s observations were carried out right under the cloud where his instruments detected the lower positive region directly above him. Since the higher negative central region screened the top positive region, Simpson concluded that the negative charge was the upper most. Both the precipitation hypothesis and the convection hypothesis faced problems in justifying the formation of a tripolar structure in cloud. It may be seen from the following discussion that none of the two hypotheses is sound enough to explain the observed natural phenomena.

The strength and weakness of convection and precipitation models

Both the models have many weaknesses and thus, when any one model fails to provide answer for some fact, the other becomes a string of hope. This is discussed systematically in the following analysis.

The naive precipitation model was basically developed to explain the positive dipole structure and it miserably fails to explain the tripolar structure. Not only the model requires modification but also the micro physics of charge transfer remains to be explained.
The convection model appears more natural towards explaining the tripolar structure as it assumes a corona discharge from the sharp objects on the earth which permits the formation of lower positive charge at the base of the cloud. However, the actual flux measurement suggests that it may be an order of magnitude smaller than that required to justify the rate of charging.
When the flux measurement did not agree with the convection model, the precipitation hypothesis gained its importance with several modifications. Modifications were made primarily to explain the lower positive charge. Simpson found the rain drops ordinarily carring positive charge. His studies on rain fall gave an empirical knowledge that larger droplets selectively acquire positive charge on break up. He then implanted this empirical knowledge in explaining the lower positive charge by assuming that the precipitating water droplets in the thundercloud also fragmented near the base of the cloud which then accounted for the lower positive charge. This model again failed like the convection model when the measurement was made under the main negative charge region of the thundercloud. Measurement showed that the charges in precipitated particles are substantially greater than those produced by water fall fragmentation. It was also noted that the positively charged particles that fell below the main negative charge were ice particles having little scope for fragmentation.
When charging by fragmentation did not succeed, then charging by ice melting was considered. Laboratory experiment in 1940’s showed that ice particles picked up strong positive charge in the course of melting. It may be noted here that ice melts only at an altitude below 4000 meters. Hence, this model failed to justify any pickup of positive charge at altitudes over 4000 meters.
Collision between ice crystals and gaupel particles was then anticipated for the precipitation model. Many investigations have shown that the polarity of charge, transferred to the particles is strongly temperature dependent. Below a critical temperature, negative charge is transferred and at higher temperatures, positive charge is transferred. This critical temperature is the charge reversal temperature. The lower positive charge region in the tripolar structure remains above the charge reversal temperature. Thus the temperature dependent charge transfer has some stand in explaining the lower positive charge. This model does not invoke any convection which is an important part of the cloud dynamics. There is substantial evidence that thunderstorms are regions of vigorous up-drafts and down-drafts indicating that convection is indisputably present. For this reason, many think that the convection hypothesis is perhaps close to reality.

It was observed that the maximum lightning flash rates are associated with upward motion of gaupel and hail stones above the main negative region. This again contradicts the naive precipitation model where the downward motions of gaupel particles are assumed.

The argument was in favour of the convection hypothesis and it was thought that strong convection currents being the characteristic feature of thunderstorms is probably linked to cloud electrification. The convection hypothesis, however, does not predict the screening layer above the upper positive zone.

Charge structure in low atmosphere and in clouds- a new concept

Electric charge field is seen to exist both in disturbed and fair-weather condition as a global phenomenon and it has a highly organized structure. Though the charge phenomenon is quite conspicuous during the storm, the presence of electrical field is quite common in fair-weather condition. Thus, one can’t attribute the cause of electrification in lower atmosphere as an exclusive feature of thundercloud. Even though the rain clouds are always active at some part of the world, it is difficult to explain the exact nature of fair-weather electric field and the air earth current. Hence, the mechanism of cloud charging does not essentially confine to the cloud pockets only. Rather, it (charge structure in cloud) could be interpreted as a local modification of global fair-weather charge field structure due to the variation in dielectric property of atmospheric medium (air) with the formation of cloud pockets. It may be mentioned here that the electrical conductivity of cloud is one order lower than that of the air.

So far, our attempts to understand the electric structure in cloud were to discover a charging mechanism (charge separation in micro scale) and find a means for the migration of charge (charge separation in macro scale) by attributing to a cause from and within the thundercloud and rainfall. Events like cloud precipitation, convection etc. those associated with the thundercloud could not provide success in bringing up a satisfactory model even though nearly two and a half centuries have already passed since the first identification of electric discharge in thunderclouds. Perhaps the present approach to understand the cloud electrification by attributing the cause from within and around the cloud is not in the right track. The precipitation theory makes use of many conjectures, the physics of which in micro domain is yet to be established. For example, the conjecture that collision of precipitated particles with the mist of water droplet and ice crystals would result in transfer of negative charge to the precipitated particles and positive charge to the mist, needs to be substantiated using physics. The convection theory does not take into account the charge forces when the charges of one polarity are accumulated by convection. It may be mentioned here that the convection process is carried out by the action of gravity which is by far weaker than the charge interaction forces. It thus becomes impossible to make cloud charging by convection. On the other hand, any development of electric charge in cloud by some other mechanism would make a vertical movement of the cloud causing convection and storm. It is not surprising to find that a definite electric potential favours precipitation rather than precipitation causing electric charging of cloud. This fact may be analysed from the failure of large number of experiments to make artificial rain fall by seeding.

It would be preferable to understand first the fair-weather electric structure as it is a global feature and then interpret the local charge phenomena in the thundercloud as a specific modification of the global charge feature under local conditions.

Global charge structure

It is well known that the earth is negatively charged with respect to the atmosphere above. No satisfactory answer is available for this. Thus, we do not know as to how the earth is negatively charged? It is not the case for the earth alone. We do not know as yet, how the electrons or the protons are negatively charged. These require deeper understanding of the charge itself, and its bearing with mass etc? May be, a clear understanding of the mechanism of the negative charging of the earth will give us the clue to know how in electron and proton are characteristically charged. The objective of this paper being only to analyse the charge structure in the thundercloud, we will confine the discussion to the subject.

The surface (crust) of the earth being negatively charged, it organises a charge field structure with alternate positive and negative ionospheric charge shells [1]. These charged shells may be called primary charge shells. The first positive primary charge shell is located at a height of 47 km from the surface of the earth. This positively charged shell also contains negatively charged particles but less in number. Between the negatively charged earth and the positively charged atmosphere (ionosphere) there exists a potential gradient (electric field). Due to this impressed vertical electric field, the negative and positive charges in the atmospheric medium cause further polarisation resulting formation of electrically charged sub-shells. It is also said that the spacing of the sub-shells exhibit an outwardly expanding order of spacing starting from the surface of the earth or any other main shells [1]. The sub-shell again being composed of sub-sub-shells and so on, a complex electric structure is developed up to 47 km (Fig.4). Ions formed by any energetic process migrate to their equilibrium position by the action of gravity and charge forces. The new charge shell, sub-shell concept in the atmosphere allows a free-standing atmosphere without getting settle down to the surface. This electric structure corresponds to the polarised field in fair-weather condition. Like the movement of ionospheric charges in primary shells responding to the attraction from the sun and the moon, the motion of charge particle in sub-shells also occurs. We shall now examine how this fair-weather potential assumes a higher charge density within the thundercloud.

The electrical resistivity is one order higher for the cloud than that of air. Thus, the cloud remains almost electrically isolated from the other part of the atmospheric shell. The horizontal electrical conductivity being poor in the cloud, the charges do not migrate globally as it happens in atmospheric air. The absorption of solar radiation causing photo ionisation increases in cloud as compared to clear air. The excess ions migrating to their respective equilibrium position in different shells, sub shells, sub-sub-shells increase the charge density significantly as the horizontal conduction is poor within the cloud. The vertical conduction is still more difficult as it has to overcome additionally the polarised potential barrier. Once the potential increases significantly in a disproportionate manner in excess of the equilibrium value, it ruptures the dielectric medium giving rise to an electric discharge. This discharge takes place vertically following the path of least resistance. Once the electric discharge takes place, the charge potential in the shells, sub-shells … abruptly change due to temporary rupture of the dielectric barrier. This causes violent vertical movement of the charged cloud resulting in storms. Changes in the electric potential caused by electric discharge promote precipitation of the cloud. Thus, neither convection nor precipitation is fundamental to cloud charging mechanism; they are only the after effects of electric discharge.

Ionisation within the cloud can be accounted for by the solar ionising radiation, collision process within the cloud, ionizing radiation from ground based nuclear material, ionising radiation from the atmospheric dusts of nuclear materials, cosmic rays, corona discharge from the sharp objects and high voltage transmission lines etc. But once the neutral atoms and molecules are ionized, the ions move vertically to their respective equilibrium positions in shell, sub-shell locations. This is how the positively and negatively charged cloud layers confirm to the definite heights determined by the global charge structure (Fig.3, Fig.4 and Fig.8.5). Now perhaps it may be feasible to make artificial rainfall by triggering the lightning discharge among the shell-sub shell under suitable charge conditions. One can as well draw power from the atmospheric charged shell by linking the shells/sub-shells through a narrow ion column generated by sending an appropriate laser beam from the ground.

One would ordinarily expect all lightning discharge to take place towards late afternoon when the cloud charging reaches a maximum potential. However, there are variations in this timing because of the unevenness of the negatively charged surface of the earth. The mountains and forests when come under the cloud, the triggering of electric discharge also takes place.

Conclusion

The earth as a negatively charged body explains the cloud dynamics more clearly. As reported in earlier articles, other charge phenomena such as an ionosphere, aurora, geomagnetism, Van-Allen Belt, magnetospheres are also understood in a better way by assuming the earth to be negatively charged. In view of this the solar system has a closer resemblance with the atomic system as far as the electric charge and the discrete orbit is concerned. It appears a common universal dynamic for the atomic and solar system may be feasible in future.

This article is a part of the original work published in the book “Planetary electrodynamics-1”, Volume-1 of the series “Dynamics of universe; interplay of matter, space and charge”, 1998 by the same author.

References

Williams, E.R., Sc. American, Nov.1988, p.48.
Ibid. p.49.
Ibid, p.51.
Ibid, p.50.
Ibid, p.48.

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Signature of Science in Lotus Leaf

Kamala Kanta Jena — Mon, 25 Dec 2023 12:18:14 +0000

Abstract

The amazing and unbelievable self-cleaning property of Lotus leaf is widely cited in various books, dialects and different sections of our culture including Bhagavad Gita. Modern scientific research agrees to this remarkable property of the Lotus leaf. This amazing natural phenomenon promotes scientists to think of self-cleaning coatings on smart cloth, automobiles, optical devices, window glasses, solar panels and many more. The present discussion also admits that the nature has given birth to science that helps us understand natural phenomena.

Key words- Lotus effect, superhydrophobic surface, angle of contact, force of adhesion, nanoparticle.

Introduction

The 10th verse in Chapter-5 of Bhagavad Gita says :

ब्रह्मण्याधाय कर्माणि सङ्गं त्यक्त्वा करोति य: |
लिप्यते न स पापेन पद्मपत्रमिवाम्भसा || 10||

Brahmaṇyādhāya karmāṇi saṅgaṁ tyaktvā karoti yaḥ
Lipyate na sa pāpena padma-patram ivāmbhasā

The lines teach us the fact that he who acts placing all actions in the eternal Brahman, giving up attachment, is unaffected by sin like the Lotus by water. A Lotus leaf grows in water but it is never moistened by water. In the similar fashion, the person is untouched by sin like the Lotus leaf that comes out dry from inside the water. This amazing and unbelievable property of lotus leaf is widely cited in the various books, dialects and different sections of our culture including the Bhagvad Gita. The non-sticky clean surface of lotus leaf has been widely studied by researchers. In fact there exists science behind the amazingly non-sticky surface of Lotus leaf. The structure of the amazing surface has been analysed scientifically. The researchers have tried to mimic the morphology of the leaf to comprehend the magical property. Ultimately, they have succeeded to manufacture superhydrophobic surface by mimicking the magical surface morphology of the Lotus leaf.

Illustration

A Lotus leaf grows in water and mud, but it is never moistened by the water or mud. Apart from the Lotus leaf, there are a number of natural water-repellent leaves. But the Lotus leaf is recognised by the Bhagavad Gita as the leaf with the highest cleanliness. Today’s research also agrees to this remarkable property of the Lotus leaf. The Lotus plant in modern research has been considered to have excellent water non-wettability. That is why the lotus plant is recognised as the “King Plant” among its entire category [1].

There exists interesting scientific theory behind non-wettability of the Lotus leaf. The wetting capacity of a liquid numerically depends upon its contact angle with the solid surface. The contact angle is defined as the angle subtended between a tangent drawn to the curved liquid surface at the point of contact and the solid surface present inside that liquid. The contact angle is different for different pairs of solid and liquid. We observe that water wets clean glass. The angle of contact between glass surface and water surface is around zero to 8°. The mercury cannot wet glass surface and its angle of contact is around 135°. Therefore, a liquid with numerically small angle of contact can wet a solid surface. The superhydrophobic surface of Lotus leaf possesses extremely high contact angle with water and it is greater than 150°. Thus, the angular magnitude agrees to the superhydrophobic nature of the leaf.

The magical surface of the Lotus leaf has been broadly investigated by the modern researchers and extensively applied on variety of substrates for potential self-cleaning. Although many kinds of superhydrophobic surfaces mimicking the lotus leaf’s structure have also been studied, the lotus leaf has been proved to be the best natural superhydrophobic surface. It also provides comprehensive discussion on modern research carried out in the field of artificial superhydrophobic surfaces. The self-cleaning property in the field of modern research refers to the “Lotus effect” [2] [3].

Nature is the creator of science and scientists. It is the largest laboratory for research, which laboratory is freely available to all types of researchers. It helps biologist, physicist, chemist, mathematician, as well as engineer in their field of higher study. Nature is fantastic and always ready to teach us without hesitation. About 460 crore years back our Earth was a ball of hot gases with no living creature. Nature developed living nanostructures around 350 crore years back as the result of evolution. The materials and devices in nano-scale have been developed today by precisely imitating the chemical components, surface structures and magical properties present in natural systems [4-6], although the ‘perfect mimicry’ is not possible. Nature has a good number of plants leaves whose surfaces exhibit excellent water-repellent properties [7-9]. However, the Lotus leaf among them has been popularly regarded as a symbol of purity in our culture for over 2,000 years due to its ability to remain clean.

The Lotus leaf remains clean even in dirty-muddy ponds. The phenomena in which water drops on the leaf-surface bead up like shiny balls are worth watching. The droplets cannot wet the surface, but quickly roll off along with dirt. The science behind such phenomena is related to the force of cohesion and adhesion. The force of attraction between similar molecules is known as force of cohesion, whereas, the force of attraction between dissimilar molecules is known as force of adhesion. The force of adhesion between the water droplet and dust particle is greater than the force of adhesion between the leaf surface and dust particle. That is why the water droplet can collect and carry the dust particles from the surface of leaf, and hence the surface remains clean.

Two German botanists, W. Barthlott and C. Neinhuis, in 1997 have illustrated the unique dual scale micro/nanostructure of the Lotus leaves with the help of a scanning electron microscope (SEM). They have also studied the chemical material present on the leaf [2]. The study of unusual surface wettability of leaf can be realised by controlling the surface geometrical microstructure and low surface energy of the surface. The research on such an amazing property leads to implementation of self-cleaning coatings on automobiles, optical devices, window glasses and solar panels. The technique enables us to manufacture anti-fogging coatings, anti-corrosive coatings and anti-icing surface. In the present scenario, the Lotus leaf-like micro/nanoscale binary structure is well accepted in developing superhydrophobic surfaces [10, 11].

The application of nanotechnology to manufacture smart cloth is no doubt an imitation of unusual superhydrophobic surfaces. The way we keep our clothes clean, unsoiled and bright is expensive and time consuming. It needs soap, detergent, washing powder, washing machine and hot water. That too there is chance of colour fading during wash. Therefore, sophisticated washing materials are required for deep cleaning without colour fading. All these problems can be solved by adopting self-cleaning superhydrophobic surface of the clothes. The provision of nano-coating on the clothes can keep the clothes clean without wash. It is because the dust and dirt particles are much bigger than the nanoparticles.

Conclusion

The notion of Lotus effect and superhydrophobic surface is originated from nature, especially from the Lotus leaf. In fact, nature has given birth to science, although science helps us understand natural phenomena. Innumerable phenomena occur in the universe every moment. But we are capable of sensing and understanding a few of them. Scientists are truly unable to explain each and every phenomenon taking place in nature. New theories are formulated and coming into picture in order to explain both the touched and untouched problems. Research community should welcome new theories formulated for explaining various natural phenomena. Of course, a theory is subjected to be modified or even rejected if it fails to explain the phenomena consistently and logically.

Reference

Sanjay S. Latthe et al., Molecules 2014, 19, 4256-4283.
W. Barthlott and C. Neinhuis, Planta 1997, 202, 1-8.
C. Neinhuis and W. Barthlott, Ann. Bot. 1997, 79, 667.
F. Xia and L. Jiang, Adv. Mater. 2008, 20, 2842–2858.
N. Huebsch and D. J. Mooney, Nature 2009, 462, 426–432.
X. Hou, W. Guo and L. Jiang, Chem. Soc. Rev. 2011, 40, 2385–2401.
D. Quéré and M. Reyssat, Philos. Trans. R. Soc. A 2008, 366, 1539–1556.
K. Liu, X. Yao and L. Jiang, Chem. Soc. Rev. 2010, 39, 3240–3255.
K. Koch, B. Bhushan and W. Barthlott, Progr. Mater. Sci. 2009, 54, 137–178.
S. Nishimoto and B. Bhushan, Rsc Adv. 2013, 3, 671–690.
A.V. Rao, S. S. Latthe, H. Hirashima et al., J. Colloid Interf. Sci. 2009, 332, 484–490.

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Understanding Science as a System of Knowledge With Its Natural Boundaries

Niranjan Barik — Mon, 25 Dec 2023 12:11:55 +0000

Abstract

Science and technology has played a significant role in the progress and prosperity of mankind. Therefore there is no denying celebrating science for its achievements with remarkable ability to explain a wide range of phenomena in natural world. But public pronouncements through popular science literature trying to convince people to embrace a materialistic God-less universe for which science is the only hope and only route to knowledge is not sound enough. This is because Science and its world view arenot the same as it were up to nineteenth Century. There has been a paradigm shift to replace the materialistic world view in the aftermath of the twentieth Century revolution bought about by the theory of relativity and quantum physics. This new science with its demarcated natural boundaries imposed by relativity, indeterminism and incompleteness for the logico- mathematical frame work has clearly exposed the irrelevance of any kind of dogmatism pertaining to science which questions our traditional values and Cultural practices blaming everything as superstation.

Introduction

Every Lay person in this twenty-first Century must be at least familiar with the word ‘Science’ through its technological marvels in one’s day-to-day life. But the same is not true as far as ‘Science’ as a knowledge system with its specific methodology, its scope and limitations are concerned. The purpose of this article is therefore to address this aspect in particular since it has involved our life in such a way that we have so to say blindly developed a fresh belief system in the name of science denigrating in a way, all other subtle human faculties and human factors relevant to our life.

What Is Science

Science is essentially a knowledge system involving systematic and rationalistic study of all aspects of physical nature. It tries to explain all that exist and all that happen in this physical world with the help of natural causes without invoking any divine cause thereof. The methodology adopted in science for the study of nature involves experimental observation for gathering data; analysis of the observed data to search for some pattern or regularity in the data, and finally construction of some mathematical framework based on mathematical logic to generate the same observed patterns or regularities. This mathematical frame work is called a theoretical formulation to explain certain aspects of nature and the pattern in the data, It generates as predictions, is called some law of nature when it matches with the experimentally observed data. Theoretical formulations can also be effectively made starting with some basic principles approved by common sense or otherwise on the basis of seer intuition. The predictions of such theoretical formulation need verification by experiment or else must be falsified by deeper mathematical logic. Infact any scientific theory or any experimental observation must go through many critical scrutinies before it becomes acceptable to the scientific community. However if any new valid experimental observation appears challenging the existing theory; then Science would accept it in open mind to modify or re-formulate the theory. More and more unexplained aspects of nature come to the fore bringing more and more such challenges and science, thus marches on its own two legs, i.e. theory and experiment in many zig-zag ways keeping academic integrity in tact without proclaiming any final words regarding the nature of reality in nature. The mathematical formulations describing the working of nature are just mere models representing the reality at certain level of its description. Therefore this very scientific exercise is rather called realism. This scientific knowledge system, which is said to have originated in the Western world during the renaissance period in Europe, has taken more than four hundred years to mature to its present level. During this period, science has marched through several phases, reluctantly making paradigm shift for its world view. It adopted a materialistic or mechanistic world view during its initial classical phase as against the prevalent animistic or organic world view. To appreciate the growth and evolution of this scientific enterprise, we must have therefore a cursory look at its history.

History and Evolution of Science

The era of scientific revolution started noticeably in 17th century Europe, when the intellectual tradition was largely influenced by Judeo-Christian religious doctrines and ancient Greek philosophy. Church with strong royal patronage was powerful enough strictly disallowing any free thinking differing from Aristotelian philosophy. Any idea counter to the Christian doctrines would amount to blasphemy and heresy punishable under laws of the land. As late as in fourth Century BCE, Socrates, the Greek philosopher credited as the founder of western philosophy with ethical tradition was sentenced to death and was executed in 399 BCE by forced suicide through poison. Again Giordano Bruno, the Italian philosopher, mathematician and cosmologist, was publicly burned to death in 1600 CE, mainly because of his views in support of Nicolaus Copernican helio-centric model. Bruno’s case is still considered as a landmark in the history of free thought and emergence of Science in western World Copernicus (1473-1543 CE), the renaissance polymath, whose model of the Universe placed Sun rather than the earth at its Center quite against the Ptolemaic geo-centric model accepted by the then Catholic church and also Galileo Galilei (1564-1642 CE), the Italian astronomer called as the father of observational astronomy and the pioneer of scientific method; Could not escape the trial and some sort of punishment under the prevalent law. This was the social background against which scientific rationality was raising its head continuously over centuries. A torrent of new learning during the last phase of renaissance began to forcefully challenge the authority of the ancients as a result of which the long established intellectual foundation began to crack. The English man Francis Bacon, the French mathematician philosopher Rene Descartes and the Italian physicist Galileo Galilei spearheaded an international movement proclaiming a new foundation for learning that involved careful scrutiny of nature instead of analysis of ancient texts. Galileo believed that the book of nature is written in a codified language of mathematics and hence study of nature should emphasize more on the quantitative measurement leaving aside the not so relevant qualitative aspects. Galileo including Descartes assumed that those things which could be weighed, measured or counted were more true than those which could not be quantified. Bacon and Descartes used particularly strong rhetorics to carve out space for the new methods of acquiring genuine knowledge about the world; Bacon formulated the scientific methodology based mainly on empiricism with strongly worded instructions Such as,

“Nature should be hounded on its wanderings and forced to divulge Secrets so as to be conquered for the Service of mankind.”

Descartes believed following Galileo, a distinct split between matter and mind. Matter has nothing in Common with mind or spirit and vice versa. All the qualitative aspects like emotions, feelings etc belonging to mind are not relevant for scientific studies. The Universe is primarily built out of matter and it operates according to natural laws expressible in mathematical language. Descartes advocated further a mechanistic and materialistic Universe which can be studied part by part to gain the knowledge of the whole. This approach of reducing the whole to its various parts for study separately is called reductionism which became the standard practice of western classical Science. Both Bacon and Descartes claimed that by learning how the physical world works, mankind could become master and possessor of nature. By that humans could overcome hunger through innovations in agriculture, eliminate diseases through medical research and dramatically improve overall quality of life through technology and industry. Ultimately science would save humans from all sufferings and self-destructive tendencies. All these goals can be achieved in this world in one life, not in the afterlife. It was a very bold and prophetic vision since the new method found great success over the time. Both Bacon and Descartes elevated the use of reason and logic by denigrating other human faculties such as memory, imagination and creativity. It demoted history, poetry and humanity to second class status. Descartes rendering of the entire Universe as a giant machine including humans left little room for art, music and other forms of human expressions. Although such rhetoric of these visionaries opened up great new vistas for intellectual inquiry, it proposed a vastly narrower range for other worthwhile human activities. A century later many of the enlightened intellectuals even claimed that science not only could enhance the quality of life, it could even promote moral improvement. Human mind would be more virtuous and contented with the preserve of all human knowledge. Many of the French philosophers even claimed that science could be a substitute for religion. Therefore during the French revolution (1789-1799 CE), numerous Catholic churches were converted to ‘Temples of Reasons’ where quasi-religious services for the worship of Science were held, By that time on the solid foundation so developed by the visionaries, a Super structure had been built by Galileo, Kepler, Leibnitz and Newton etc explaining various aspects of the world using abstract mathematical formulations. Laplace (1749-1827) proved the invariability of planetary mean motion (average angular velocity) in 1773, which was the first and the most important step in establishing the stability of the solar system. This was most important in physical astronomy supplementing the works of Issac Newton for proclaiming absolute determination of the classical theoretical frame work so advanced by Galileo, Kepler and Newton, etc. Laplace claimed that given the initial conditions of all the constituent bodies of the universe, the future state of the universe can be in principle predicted absolutely, for which there is no necessity of any divine presence or intervention. This claim goes by the name Laplacian determinism’ for the world of our experience. There is a famous anecdote involving Pierre Simon Laplace, the physicist and Napoleon Bonaparte, the French royalty. Laplace presented the King five volumes of his own work after which Napoleon asked Laplaces:-“Newton Spoke of God in his book, I have perused yours but failed to find His name even once. Why?” On this Laplace replied; “I have no need of that hypothesis”

Thus Laplace is said to be the first Scientist to expect God from the celestial realon.

There after faith in Science grew day by day over two centuries side by side with the advancement of classical science. The most powerful expression of this belief system was found in 19^th century as positivism through the philosophy of the positivist. Auguste Francois Xavier Comte (1798-1857CE). Comte is regarded as the first philosopher of Science in the modern sense of the term, who formulated the doctrine of positivism following David Hume’s empiricism and scepticism. He claimed that the only valid data about nature’s working is acquired through sensory perceptions. There can be no validity to anything else metaphysical or transcendental. The task of scientists is to demonstrate first of all how all phenomena including human behaviour are subject to invariable natural laws by reducing them to smallest possible parts and ultimately drawing the inference for the whole under the laws of physics. Comte envisioned the trajectory of intellectual history as the “Law of three Stages.” According to this, each branch of knowledge passes through three stages. The first stage is theological which is fictitious. The second stage is metaphysical which is abstract. In the last stage it becomes Scientific which is positive. He believed that through the continual advancement of human understanding, religion would fade away, philosophy and humanities would be transformed into naturalistic basis and all human knowledge would eventually become a product of science. Any idea outside the realm of science would be pure fantasy and superstition.

The fundamental tenets of positivism were reinvigorated and elevated to a different level by the name logical positivism by a group of scholars known collectively as “The Vienna Circle”. They were a group of elite philosophers and scientists drawn from natural and social sciences, logic and mathematics, who met regularly from 1924 to 1936 at the University of Vienna, Austria. Notable amongst them were, Ernst Mach, David Hilbert, Henri Poincare, Bertrand Russel, Karl Popper, Ludwig Wittgenstein and Albert Einstein. It had the aim of making philosophy scientific with the help of modern logic. The essential scientific view of Vienna Circle about the world can be characterized by two broad features. First it is empiricist and positivist, which means right knowledge, can be gained only from experience through experimental observation and verifications. Second is logical analysis based on mathematical logic. Anything outside this frame work is considered as empty Concept. However Karl Popper was of the opinion that only a few statements in science can actually be completely verified. A single observation otherwise has the potential to invalidate a hypothesis and even an entire analytical theory. Therefore instead of experimental verification, he proposed the principle of falsifiability as the acid test for what can qualify as knowledge. Never the less positivists claimed observation as essential to the empirical approach of science for which brute facts are necessary to establish, evaluate and compare the theories. W.O. Quine further reminded that observations themselves are partly shaped by theory. Infact in the matters of how to design an experiment and what data the instruments are so designed to collect, an interpretive theoretical framework is all the more a requirement. This certainly undermines the positivists’ claim that science rests entirely on facts and is the indisputable foundation for knowledge. On the other hand Science has to walk on its two legs; empirically and analytically both.

So far we have been describing the socio-scientific ethos that was created up to early twentieth century along with the formulations of scientific methodology and philosophy of science by the pioneers of renaissance enlightenment. The pioneers of this scientific revolution considered the world to be consisting of separately situated solid substantial massy concrete bodies in a stage of absolute space and absolute time, enacting various phenomena physically by natural causes. Thus they adopted a materialistic or mechanistic world view with the conviction that the world is basically material with matter as the primary element of nature to be studied and understood. The material universe was also pictured as a machine. Such world view initially advanced by Galileo, Descartes and Newton etc achieved spectacular success in various fields of our everyday world demonstrating certainty for its predictive power. Hence reductionism and absolute determinism became the hallmark slogan of science to impress popular psych that continues to prevail even today even after many more mysteries at the microscopic realm of space, time, matter and energy have been unraveled by twentieth century science overthrowing the prevalent materialistic world view.

Science of the Modern Era

We would like to provide here a cursory look toward s the science of the modern era at the aftermath of the new revolutions brought forward by relativity and quantum physics and thereby outline the imminent natural boundaries within which science has to operate in creating knowledge which is quite in contrary to the claims of the positivists.

Modern Science had to adopt a different world view over throwing the materialistic world view of absolute determinism. In this new world view matter has melted away to nothingness and void seems to be dynamic with bubbling un-manifest energy field out of which all possibilities of existence emerge to actualize the world we perceive. The world of our perception is no more considered to be entirely as it is by itself independent of observer. Observer has to be very much in picture for experiencing the world. Determinism vanishes in the microscopic realm bringing only probabilistic predictions due to the inherent nature of uncertainty at this Level. Thus Science at the most fundamental level does not have any word with absolute certainty. It can at best make a statistically accurate prediction. Twentieth century science has revealed that it has to operate within some boundaries laid down by nature itself. Those boundaries serving as some limitations of science as a system of knowledge can be stated as follows.

(I) Uncertainty Principle:-

At the microscopic level; matter as well as radiation behaves simultaneously as particles and waves. They are neither particles nor waves but both at the same time. This is called the dual nature. Because of this dual nature, there exist pairs of observables for these entities like location and motion or time and energy etc,’ which cannot be measured.simultaneously with absolute accuracy. There would be some inherent uncertainty in their Simultaneous measurement which is enumerated by Heisenberg’s Uncertainty principle.

(II) Relativistic Principles:-

According to this principle, although the laws of nature are absolute and Universal, the concept of space and time is not absolute and not static as pictured in classical science. Space and time are not independent either, but intertwined with each other. They are not static bat dynamic and malleable too. Measure of space and time depends on the state of relative motion of the observer. For an observer moving with a speed comparable to that of light in vacuum; space contracts and time would dilate at such speed of motion which is not normally experienced in everyday world. Not only space and time become inter convertible, so also are mass and energy. Speed of light in vacuum is the ultimate speed; a cosmic speed limit.

(iii) Gödel’s Incompleteness theorem:-

It is known that science is a precise quantitative study on the basis of abstract mathematical framework that uses mathematical logic. It was believed that through this logico-rational route in utilizing the power of human reason and intellect, one can arrive at all the truth and solve all mysteries of nature. However in 1935, Kurt Gödel, a mathematician, proved that there exists no complete and consistent mathematical system, which can arrive at all the truths supposed to be present within the system. If religion is a theological system of knowledge with a belief of some existing truth that can never be proved; then mathematics, according to Gödel, is not only a religion; it is the only religion that can prove itself to be a religion. What a sobering lesson for scienceEnthusiasts to learn!

Conclusion

It does not matter in any way. As long as Science as a system of knowledge like any other system of knowledge; is understood in its proper perspectives, it would continue its journey in spite of the natural boundaries of indeterminacy, relativism and incompleteness. Science would continue to serve humanity through its judicious marching forward until it reaches the inevitable barriers on the frontiers of reason. Therefore the classical mindset of over-enthusiasms with Science as the sole route to all truth and all knowledge should be abandoned and science should not be denigrated to the level of a belief system to nurture “Scientism”. The purpose of science is to expand our understanding about the world using logico-rational methodology within the carefully carved out natural boundaries by the researchers in science. Therefore it should not be broadly generalized for all fields of academic expertise dismissing many of them as inferior or untrue. It would restrict thereby human inquiry rather than promoting it. The classical mind-set promoting scientism views that science and scientific methods are the only objective means and are the best way by which all knowledge can be acquired. This certainly puts an exaggerated trust over the efficacy of methods of natural science endorsing its application to social sciences. Claiming of certainty by this method in social sciences would be rather impossible because the objective methodology involved in science eliminates human factors Social sciences such as political science, economics, psychology and philosophy etc. center almost purely on psychological, emotional, cultural and spiritual dimensions of human experiences.

There should be, of course, no denying to celebrate science for its achievements and its remarkable ability to explain a wide variety of phenomena in natural world, But to claim that there is nothing knowable outside the scope of science would be very much like a successful fisherman arrogantly saying whatever he cannot catch in his fishing net does not exist.

The post Understanding Science as a System of Knowledge With Its Natural Boundaries appeared first on Institute of Philosophy of Nature.

In Search for Resilient Ways to Food Production: Prospect of Application of Devotional Music as Input for Plant Growth and Development

IPNAdmin — Mon, 25 Dec 2023 12:08:43 +0000

Authors

Swami Yugal Sharan, Shreerup Goswami, Pranab Kumar Ghosh, Lalit Kumar Barik, Rajdeep Kumar Saw

Abstract

The sustenance of life on this planet depends not just on food but on quality food with safe environmental conditions. The environmental and ecological milieu are the basis for life and living. Human-centred actions have most often created many problems in global health. It is high time to reconcile the odds in different human development sectors. The global food production system is one such area that is demanding a modest transition from a chemical-rich production system to more sympathetic and eco-friendly approaches. This paper highlights a novel application of devotional music as an alternate source of clean energy to boost agricultural production. Devotional music has been found to enhance germination and vegetative and reproductive growth in Mung bean plants. Enhanced physiological growth in Mung bean crops was substantiated by an improvement in the synthesis of plant metabolites upon application of devotional music. This field of research deserves attention for the development of sustainable ways of food production.

Forewords

Our environment is a complex whole with components, relationships, dependence, and consequences. The environmental balance is very intricate and intriguing. Humans are the most intelligent of all beings on this planet and have the highest responsibility to be rational for the survival of their own race as well as others.

Environment and Human Civilization

Environment and ecology are the platforms for human action and sustenance. Most often civilizations have centered around human development. Human tryst for such development has revealed that numerous civilizations met their end on account of severe destruction of the environment. Our existential truth is a reality on account of a complex harmony that exists in this creation, especially with our immediate environment and ecology where we live in. If we take a deep look at the development of human civilizations then we will find that in this modern time, we are facing a lot more problems than ever before. Human activities have created a host of pathos in the environment that we live in. Ease to life has come with a huge environmental cost, pollution has engulfed the air we breathe, the water we drink, and the soil we produce our food. Our development has come with a sacrifice of a huge species and life forms, those remaining are struggling against the possessive warfare of the ambitious human race; at many an instance, their own race is in the plight of hunger and devoid of the basic securities of life. “Environmental problems have contributed to numerous collapses of civilizations in the past. Now, for the first time, a global collapse appears likely. Overpopulation, overconsumption by the rich, and poor choices of technologies are major drivers; dramatic cultural change provides the main hope of averting calamity” (Ehrlich & Ehrlich, 2013). It is time for us to act sensibly to the melancholic outcry of the environment. It is time that we solemnly take an oath to develop a cultural heritage that is pro-environmental and that takes care of the sustenance of one and all as a part of a harmonious whole.

Food Security and Global Environmental Issues

The emission of greenhouse gases due to human activities has led to global warming; a considerable rise in global temperature has resulted in the melting of polar ice caps, leading to rising sea levels, and flash floods. Indiscriminate falling of trees and encroachment of forest land to make way for modern settlements have badly affected the biodiversity, ecological balance in the environment, and provision of required carbon sink. Population pressure, the need for modernization, and industrial development has given rise to chemical-based intensive agriculture to feed a burgeoning population from an ever-dwindling land resource. According to estimates compiled by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), by 2050 we will need to produce 60 percent more food to feed a world population of 9.3 billion. Doing that with a farming-as-usual approach would take too heavy a toll on our natural resources (United Nations, n.d.). “Pesticides are among the leading causes of death by self-poisoning, particularly in low- and middle-income countries. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) estimates that, in developing countries, 80% of the necessary increases in food production to keep pace with population growth are projected to come from increases in yields and the number of times per year crops can be grown on the same land. Only 20% of new food production is expected to come from the expansion of farming land. Pesticides can prevent large crop losses and will therefore continue to play a role in agriculture. However, the effects on humans and the environment of exposure to pesticides are a continuing concern” (WHO, 2018). Resultant pollution from industrial growth and chemical-based agriculture has almost snatched us of everything pure, clean, and safe. The very soil, which is the home for diverse life including plants, is on the verge of extinction. “Today, 33 percent of land is moderately to highly degraded due to the erosion, salinization, compaction, acidification, and chemical pollution of soils. Further loss of productive soils would severely damage food production and food security, amplify food-price volatility, and potentially plunge millions of people into hunger and poverty” (FAO, 2015). All forms of life are now under the sacrilege of development that the most intelligent race has performed on this planet. This calls for the utmost attention to evolve nature-friendly ways of living and development.

“We have no choice but to embark on a greener revolution. We can sustainably increase crop production by using a range of techniques that are more in tune with ecosystems by minimizing the use of external inputs and by helping farmers cope with the weather extremes that increasingly accompany climate change, thereby enhancing their resilience and reducing greenhouse gas emissions. This is a kind of farming that is useful and accessible to small-scale farmers by being adapted to the conditions they face with emphasis on local crop varieties, and harnessing traditional knowledge to sustain, rather than fight, natural ecosystem processes” (Da Silva, n.d.). We need to gradually shift from chemical-based agriculture to more nature-friendly options for getting a good harvest from our fields. We need a greener revolution without harmful external inputs, but the challenges of population pressure and world food requirements simply indicate that we do not have a choice away from intensive agriculture and external inputs. Can’t we find more intelligent and natural inputs? It seems that we ought to investigate some unattended dimensions of plant life, plant science, and also some aspects of science beyond this physical science.

In search for resilient ways to food production

Existential universe whether seen or unseen, in its pure and most basic form consists of energy that resonates as a vibratory frequency or pattern. Even every thought and every feeling has its own vibration. The physicist Albert Einstein says “Everything is energy and that is all there is to it. Match the frequency of the reality you want and you cannot help but get into that reality. It can be no other way. This is not philosophy, this is physics.”

The words of Albert Einstein give us the subtle dimension of the universe we look at. It also opens a dimension to us the human beings that desired outcomes could be achieved through the subtle approach of frequency matching. Vibration is the internal state of matters. Everything in the universe exists as a differential level of vibration. So, we have liberty of thought that the vibrational state of matters or entities, be it insentient or sentient could be manipulated, harmonized, or disharmonized and its effect could be studied, organized, and formulated into a body of science to obtain desired outcomes.

Indian Vedic Scripture provides definite cues towards this understanding, it states that this physical world is created out of nothing, which means out of nothing that is material or to say that which could not be talked about in terms of physics. In Indian spiritual science, it is stated that the universe is not created as such but it has unfolded from the supreme or some supreme power. The Vedic Scriptures (Taitairaiya Upanishad) state that from Atma (the Soul Universal) was born the Askash (the Space) from Akash the Vayu (the Air); from Vayu the Agni (the fire) from the fire the Apaa (the Water) and finally from Water the Prithivi (the Earth). These are also referred to as the Panchamhabhuta. “The word panchamahabhuta is made up of three words: ‘Pancha’, ‘Maha’ and ‘Bhuta’. ‘Pancha’ means five, ‘Maha’ means great, and ‘Bhuta’ means that which exists. All the living and non-living objects in the universe are made up of panchamahabhuta. Therefore, Panchamahabhuta is the five fundamental elements responsible for the creation of the universe, including humans. Every individual has a unique panchabhautik constitution. This constitution remains in a state of equilibrium in health and any imbalance results in disease. It is crucial for healthcare providers to identify panchabhautik imbalance and should have the capability to restore equilibrium”(Charaksamhitaonline, 2021). These Panchamahabhutas are associated with Panchatanmatras. Panchatanmatra is the five perceptions or subtle elements that are the objects of the five senses. The term comes from the Sanskrit, Pancha, meaning “five”; Tan, meaning “subtle”; and Matra, meaning “elements.” The pancha tanmatras are; Shabda (Touch), Sparsa (Touch), Roop (Form/ Vision), Rasa (Taste) and Gandha (Smell). The panchatanmatra comprises the information through which we sense or experience the external world. Another translation of Tanmatra is “mother of matter,” meaning that the panchatanmatra represents the mother energy of the world. The panchatanmatra also combine to produce the gross elements that comprise the universe; Ether element from sound, Air element from sound and touch; Fire element from sound, touch, and sight; Water element from sound, touch, sight, and taste and Earth element from all five tanmatra (Yogapedia, n.d.). So, Vedic scripture reveals that Sound (Vibration) is the primordial cause of this material universe. In Sanskrit, it is also called Shabda Brahma. Shabda Brahman is the transcendental sound, the cosmic sound. In Sanskrit, Shabda means Sound or Word and Brahman means the Supreme Self or the Absolute of the Universe (Yogapedia, n.d.). This means the Supreme, the Absolute first manifests as sound vibration towards the creation of this universe, and therefore it is the basis of all living and non-living entities in the world. This is very much in tune with what Einstein has to say that everything in the universe is but energy/or vibration.So, a vibrational manipulation in the form of sound, in the form of a classified sound that is music can give us the required dimension of action research we are searching for.

The dimension of life in plants attracted the attention of scientists when the vitalities of plants were for the first time captured in the crescograph of Acharya Jagadish Chandra Bose in 1901. Achary Bose did pioneering research to demonstrate that plants have an electromechanical pulse and a nervous system and that plants are intelligent beings and are capable of remembering and learning(Tandon, 2019). Tandon also remarked that it was hard to believe in such investigation during his time and once accepted with reluctance, there was practically very little activity in the field for the next several decades. More than a hundred years later, recent advances in molecular biology, genomics, ecology, and neurophysiology have led to renewed interest resulting in a flurry of activity, confirming most of Bose’s observations. Today plants are regarded as conscious beings, possess their own system of perception and expression, and are capable of receiving and storing information, associative learning, remote sensing, and connecting them with other beings and such actions are visible not only at the levels of the plant as a whole organized system but even at the mere cellular level(Tompkins & Bird, 2004). Plants are equally adept in reacting to their ever-changing environment as animals and humans. Intelligent behaviour in plants is exemplified by their exceptional versatility to deal with abiotic stresses as well as microbial and insect attacks by balancing appropriate defensive mechanisms (Van Loon, 2016). Plants have their own system of signaling even beyond the known determinants of communication like volatile chemicals, direct physical contact, or changes in infrared light wavelengths. Plants are endowed with mechanisms for sensing and transduction of naturally occurring and fluctuating geophysical waveforms of both magnetic and acoustic origin(Gagliano et al., 2012). Research has mostly focused on Light, Temperature, Water, Air, and Nutritional impact on the plant but sound as a stimulus, as input for plants lacked emphasis, in fact, sound does play an extremely important role in communication and signaling in the plant for intelligent behavior at physical, chemical and genetic levels (Mishra et al., 2016). Plant growth is sum-total of cell proliferation and elongation, and apart from basic nutritional requirements plant’s relationship to environmental stimuli like light, temperature, air, and sound determines its growth. All stimuli can play a negative or positive role depending upon the specific need of the cells or the plant species so is for sound. Sound waves with specific frequencies and intensities can have positive effects on various plant biological, biochemical, and physiological activities including seed germination, root elongation, plant height, callus growth, cell cycling, signaling transduction systems, enzymatic and hormonal activities, and gene expression (Chowdhury et al., 2014).

When sound and vibration are the primordial cause of this gross existence, when plants are extremely sensitive to external stimuli, when plants are especially adept at perceiving sound vibration for their existential realities, when music has so much of health benefits for human beings we should simply have the ease to speculate that music as an inputs for plants in addition to other natural inputs like air, water, light, temperature and soil nutrients can play a determinative role in the growth and development in a resilient way.

Some remarkable footprints of past research initiatives

Analysis of RNA-Seq and microRNA-Seq using tomato fruits treated with optimized sound waves to attenuate fruit ripening revealed sound-specific microRNAs, which could be used as sound-specific biomarkers in tomato Sk et al. (2018). These research findings provide strong molecular evidence of sound perception in plants. Chandrakala & Trivedi, (2019) reviewed that music had a positive effect on seed germination due to enhanced metabolic rate of growth and development. The frequencies in these vibrations facilitate physiological processes like nutrient absorption, photosynthesis, protein synthesis, and the overall development of healthier plants with better yields. Exposure of seedlings and mature plants to green music, classical music, and nature sounds, Gayatri mantra, Pirith, elevated the levels of polyamines and increased the uptake of oxygen. The positive impact of music was observed on plants like wheat, spinach, horse gram, soya, and paddy; and there is an immense scope to exploit music as a tool for breaking seed dormancy and enhancing the yield. Roy Choudhury & Gupta (2015), in their germination experiment on Cicer arietinum (chickpea), revealed that throughout the period of germination and development of the saplings, those exposed to Indian Light Music had higher germinated seedlings and seedlings were blooming better compared to the control saplings. They also opined that soft rhythmic audible frequencies must have affected the absorption of nutrients and formation of metabolites in the plants and thus expedited germination of seeds, growth, and development of plants. Ankur, (2016) reported that higher elongation of the shoot was observed in Mung Bean ( Vigna radiata ) when exposed to Vedic chanting in comparison to control as well as discouraging words. Hanaa F.A. Abd El-Rahman (2017) reported that exposing Salvia officinalis plants to classical music twice per day promoted growth, oil percentage, and leaf pigments.Laad & Viswanathan (2010) in their experiment with the effect of string instruments (Violin and Veena) found a positive impact on the growth of Trigonella Foenum graecum (Fenugreek) exposed to Violin and Veena at a frequency of 1500 Hz and intensity of 50dB. The content of chlorophyll A, chlorophyll B, Carotenoids, Carbohydrates, and Protein were higher in the plants exposed to the sounds of string instruments.

Research on plant bioacoustics conducted by scientists all around the world, likeYu et al.(2013), Sulong et al. (2016), Hanaa F.A. Abd El-Rahman (2017), Munasinghe et al. (2018), Roy Chowdhury & Gupta (2015)Massoumi et al. (2018) Chivukula & Ramaswamy (2014) and other has led us to a consensus that sound in the form of pure tone sound wave, music, classical music, chanting, etc have a definite impact on plant growth and development. The impact of sound on plant growth has varied when the quality of sound has varied from noise to rhythmic music; from hard rock to mild music; from light music to a symphony and classical music and so on. Thus, reviews of the literature give a general understanding that the qualitative aspect of sound in acoustic research does play a very important role in the impact observed.

A novel approach to bioacoustics research with devotional music

In a bid to further improve the quality of acoustic inputs that could be delivered to plants for better growth and development references were drawn from the Indian spiritual scriptures, where in an essence was drawn that the power of God’s name is held supreme in Indian spiritual science. God resides in each of his names with full potency. Singing of God’s name, beauty, glory, and past-time in a contemplative disposition is conceived as the ultimate source of bliss (Kripaluji Maharaj, 2009)(Krishnadas Kabiraj, 1993) (Thakur Vrindavandas, 1995). It has been emphasized that the meditative intention of an action affects the outcome of the action (Haid & Huprikar, 2001).

Here it may be elaborated that Sri Chaitanya Mahaprabhu has greatly emphasized the role of god’s name in fulfilling the eternal purpose of human life in his advice named “Shikshastak” or “Ashtapadi”. Some of the verses from the Astapadi may be presented as under: –

ceto-darpaṇa-mārjanaḿ bhava-mahā-dāvāgni-nirvāpaṇa

śreyaḥ-kairava-candrikā-vitaraṇaḿ vidyā-vadhū-jīvanam

ānandāmbudhi-vardhanaḿ prati-padaḿ pūrṇāmṛtāsvādanaḿ

sarvātma-snapanaḿ paraḿ vijayate śrī-kṛṣṇa-sańkīrtanam

In explanation to the above verse Sri Kripaluji Maharaj in “Bhagavannama Mahatmya” signifies that chanting the name of Shri Krishna cleanses the mirror of the heart and extinguishes the blazing fire of misery in the form of the repeated cycle of birth and death. It is like the radiance of the moonbeam which causes the lily of eternal good to blossom in the nectar of the divine name. It is the very life of all transcendental knowledge. Every utterance of the divine name gives a full taste of its nectarine sweetness that swells in the heart of the chanter, like a surging ocean of everlasting Bliss and Peace.

nāmnām akāri bahudhā nija-sarva-śaktis

tatrārpitā niyamitaḥ smaraṇe na kālaḥ

etādṛśī tava kṛpā bhagavan mamāpi

durdaivam īdṛśam ihājani nānurāgah

O my Lord, Your holy name alone can render all benediction to living beings, and thus you have hundreds and millions of names, like Krsna and Govinda. In these transcendental names, you have invested all your transcendental energies. There are not even hard and fast rules for chanting these names. O my Lord, out of kindness You enable us to easily approach You by Your holy names, but I am so unfortunate that I have no attraction for them (Kripaluji Maharaj, 2009).

The impact of the divine name of God is not restricted to human beings alone the verses that follow from the Chatanya Charitamrita and Chaintany Bhagwat will reflect its impact on lower beings as well.

pashu pakshi keetadi balitena pare

shunileya harinam tara sab tare.

C B Adi Khanda 16.280(Thakur Vrindavandas, 1995)

It is being said that animals, birds, and insects who do not have the ability to sing God’s name too receive the benediction of God upon hearing the chanting.

Uchha kari karile Govinda sankirtan

Jantu matra shuniai pai bimochan

C B Adi Khanda 16.286(Thakur Vrindavandas, 1995)

Glories of God sung aloud help the animals to attain liberation from the savagery of their animal life when hear by them.

Lord Chaitanya thus stressed that the chanting of the Hare Krishna maha-mantra is the easiest means of self-realization. Loud public and congregational chanting and singing when enters the ears one gets absorbed in the sound vibration. Once it enters into the consciousness it purifies the mind and awakens dormant love for the supreme. This format of loud congressional singing or sankirtan not only benefits humans but animals, plants, and other lower creatures as well.

Hence, devotional music comprising of the singing of the name, beauty, glory, and past time of God was perceived as a source of supreme energy, and the required frequency matching for good health at physical, mental, or psychological and obviously at spiritual level might be possible for all living beings with devotional singing or with an exposure to devotional music in a contemplative disposition.

Some remarkable outcomes of exposure of crops to devotional music

Systematic research on the effect of devotional music on crops was initiated in the year 2019 at Braj Gopika Seva Mission, at Tutumberpalli, Tangi, District-Khurda in the state of Odisha, India with professional help from Sambalpur University, Odisha. Braj Gopika Seva Misson being aspiritual Institution,had the advantage of spiritual inputs and a serene atmosphere required for the study. The institution situated in rural surroundings close to an agrarian backdrop was suitable for the research programme, and the institution had an added advantage of an acoustic studio necessary for recording and formulating treatments. Six numbers of devotional songs were purposefully selected in consultation with her holiness Raseshwari Deviji from a repository of devotional songs (kirtans) composed and /or professed by Jagadguru Kripaluji Maharaj and specific soundtracks were prepared in the acoustic studio. Soundtracks were manipulated over Sound Pressure Level (SPL) and duration of exposure to form ten different levels of treatments including one control group where no musical exposure was given to the plants. Treatments were executed thrice daily, in the early morning, at noon time, and in the evening in acoustic growth chambers specially designed for the purpose, and hosted in a polyhouse for achieving a controlled condition suitable for experimental research. Treatments were executed on some selected crops like Mung Bean (Green Gram), Okhra, Pea, and Tomato for standardization of the applicationswith organic inputs. To be categorical, the impact of devotional music was studied on seed germination, vegetative growth, and reproductive growth as well as selected biochemical parameters like synthesis of Chlorophyll, Carbohydrates, and Protein. All the crops in all through the seasons had shown a definite impact of their exposure to devotional music. There had been variations in the impact over seasons. While the research encompassing various crop are on its way, research data compiled for the Mung Bean crop over three seasons has shown a remarkable difference in major growth and development parameters. The effects of devotional music on the growth and development of the Mung Bean crop and the prospect that lies ahead are briefly summarised in the following paragraphs.

While germination rate and germination index improved nominally with exposure to devotional music, remarkable and most significant improvements were observed in the radicle development and seed vigour index of Mung bean seeds when measured after 48 hours of a germination test. Both the parameters Length of radicle and Seed Vigour Indexincreased by over 42% when exposed to devotional music at 95±5dB for a duration of 3 hours per day in comparison to the control group which was not exposed to devotional music. It was also found that season had a significant impact on the germination parameters and the impact of devotional music varied over seasons.

The exposure of the experimental groups of Mung Bean plants to devotional music was continued on a daily basis from seed germination to harvesting of crops. The vegetative growth of Mung Bean plants was measured in terms of Shoot and Root length, and Green Weight and Dry Weight of the total vegetative growth at 60 days after sowing of the crop. Mung Bean plant height increased significantly in the Rabi season and summer season when exposed to devotional music with a sound pressure level of 85 ±5 dB and for duration of 1 hour per day and 75±5 dB for 3 hours per day respectively. The height of plants increased by almost 38 % in the Rabi season and 57% in the summer season in comparison to plants not exposed to devotional music. Whereas a significant increase in the overall root length was more vivid and wider over a wider range of treatments, a 44 to 65% increase in the mean root length was observed when plants were exposed to devotional music at 75±5 dB & 85±5 dB for 3 hours per day or at 95±5 dB for 2 hours per day. The mean green weight of Mung Bean plants increased by 52% when plants were exposed to devotional music at 85±5 dB for 1 hour per day in comparison to the control group. The corresponding dry weight of the plants recorded an increase of almost 42% when compared with the control group.

The effect of devotional music on reproductive growth revealed that both flowering and fruiting in the Mung bean plant were marginally accelerated upon exposure to exposure to devotional music. The number of pods produced in the plant also increased nominally when exposed to devotional music. However, the impact of devotional music was most prominent when it was recorded to the number of seeds produced per plant or the total weight of seeds produced in a plant. It was observed that there was a significant rise in the number of seeds produced per plant when they were exposed to devotional music at 85±5 dB for 1 hour per day or at 95±5 dB for 2 hours per day. The number of seed production increased by 82% and 75% in the above experimental groups respectively. A wide range of treatment levels gave a significant boost to the Mung bean crop yield and the most significant results was obtained when plants were exposed to devotional music at 85±5 dB for 1 hour per day and at 95±5 dB for 2 hours per day followed by exposure to devotional music at 75±5 dB for 3 hours per day, 85±5 dB for 2 to 3hours duration per day and 95±5 dB for 1 hour per day. Yield of mung bean in terms of seed weight increased by 80 to 120% as a resultant impact of devotional music.

Devotional Music gave a significant boost to chlorophyll synthesis in Mung bean plants. Synthesis of Chlorophyll A increased to an extent of 33% and Chlorophyll B synthesis to an extent of around 44% in comparison to the control group when measured in the leaf samples at 40 days after sowing of the Mung bean plants. All the experimental groups of Mung Bean plants registered a higher synthesis of total Chlorophyll and the total Chlorophyll synthesis increased by 22 to 35% in the experimental groups. The protein synthesis in the germinating seeds also increased up to a level of 30% upon exposure to devotional music. A higher protein synthesis was clustered around a higher SPL that is 95±5dB and a duration of 1 to 3 hours per day. Exposure of Mung bean plants to devotional music sustained a higher protein synthesis during the growth phases as well. Measurement of Protein content in leaves sampled at 40 days after sowing as well as 60 Days after sowing recorded an increase in the protein content by 46% and 30% respectively in comparison to the control group when exposed to devotional music at SPL of 80-100 dB for a duration of 1-3 hours per day. Significant qualitative improvement was observed in the harvested Mung bean seeds at the end of the experiment. Plants exposed to devotional music with a sound pressure level of 85±5 dB for a duration of 1 hour per day yielded seeds with enhanced carbohydrate and protein content in them. The carbohydrate and protein content increased byalmost 36% and 49% respectively when exposed to devotional music at 85±5 dB for a duration of 1 hour per day. The research findings established a strong biochemical basis for the impact of devotional music on the growth and development of Mung bean plants. It may be summarized that while germination of Mung Bean seeds had an overall positive impact when selected devotional music was administered at 95±5 dB for a duration of 3 hours per day, most other growth and development parameters in Mung Bean crop improved with exposure to devotional music with a sound pressure level of 85±5 dB and for a duration of just 1 hour per day.

Thus, the current research testifies that sound in the form of music and the meditative impact of music in the form of devotional music had an immensely beneficial impact on the physiological growth and development of crops. Music acts as a catalyst in the synthesis of biomolecules necessary for plant growth. The outcome of the research makes it believe that devotional and contemplative music might have an advantage over other forms of sounds and music. This certainly deserves and makes way for a comparative study with other forms of music. However, devotional music at its own credibility could be effectively used as a befitting energy for plant growth and development in parallel to other auxiliary energy sources like light, temperature, and air. The findings strengthen a dimension of thought that manipulation of sound can play a basic role in the organizational patterns of the matter both at organic and inorganic levels and thus control its growth and development. To further generalize or to simplify, it may be added that music and meditation are facts of well-beingfor human beings, this very fact of well-being, health, and vigour could be extended to other beings as well at least to the plant kingdom towards a resilient, towards an environmentally safe way to food production. There is a vast scope of systematic investigation and refinement through action research to finally generate technologies replicable by the agrarian society.

Conclusion

Devotional music is found to be a sound stimulus with the qualitative advantage of music, chanting and meditation. This specific format of sound stimuli has a prominent catalytic effect on cellular function. Metabolic activities of a plant cell get elicited with an optimum strength of devotional music, resulting in better seed germination and vegetative and reproductive growth. Devotional music promotes the plants’ effective use of available resources and even overcomes adverse weather conditions. It may be speculated with logical reason that this format of music must be affecting all the forms of life present in ecology, including the microflora and fauna in the soil. Thus, it can also bring good health to the soil system. The application of devotional music in the agricultural production system can add a new dimension of resilient ways to food production. Therefore, this area deserves detailed, multidisciplinary studies to explore underlying mechanisms and relationships to build an applicable technology for the benefit of farmers and the environment at large.

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Electrons Vary in Mass and Charge Similar to Planets

Bishnu Charanarbinda Mohanty — Mon, 25 Dec 2023 12:01:45 +0000

Abstract

In the present concept, electrons in atomic system are considered identical with fixed mass and unit negative charge. But planets of solar system are not identical as they have different sizes and different mass. Again planets are considered neutral bodies whereas electrons carry electric charge. These features and many others made the atomic system different from solar system. But both atomic system and solar system are centrally organized systems having nucleus and extra-nuclear structure and they belong to the same universe. Therefore they are expected to have similar structural features and properties for uniformity of nature. This implies the electrons of atomic structure to have different mass like that of planets and planets to have different non-electric charge like the electric charge of electrons [1]. If mass only varies leaving charge then we would face problem to justify the deflection of electron in an electric field with varying mass of electrons. However this problem may not persist if the charge of electron varies in proportion to mass. We also find the galaxies have range of sizes; the stars have range of sizes; the planets have range of sizes; the satellites have range of sizes, the asteroids have range of sizes, the sand particles have range of sizes, the atomic nuclei have range of sizes and even the atom of one class has many isotopes. No two things are found exactly identical in this universe even the thumb impressions and DNA of human beings differ from one to other which helps to identify the specific person. This author feels perhaps by assuming identical nature of electrons (unit charge with fixed mass) modern science has deviated away from the reality of nature. A simple mental feeling has no place in science. Hence the author analyses the basic experiment that established the charge and mass of electrons. No experimental evidence can be challenged, however the interpretation of the experimental result can be argued upon. The charge of electron was determined by Millikan Oil Drop Experiment. Millikan found that the electric charge of the oil droplet was integer multiple of a common value. Millikan justified the above finding by assuming that the electrons are attached to the oil drop one by one, which produced the observed result and established the charge and mass of electron. This author argues that the surface of the oil drop in atomic scale has different nature of undulations (unevenness) which form different groups of cavities, each group having different space charge potential of the cavity. Thus electrons are attached to the oil drop in lot-by-lot depending on the levels of space charge potentials of surface cavities. Hence what we measure as the charge of single electron actually corresponds to the cumulative charge of an electron-lot. Within the electron-lot there is enough scope of variation of both mass and charge of each electron while maintaining the charge to mass ratio (e/m) of electron same for all electrons. The new fact of electron has scope of explaining different natural phenomena in a better manner as well as agrees with the uniformity of nature and further makes additional score on similarity between solar system and atomic system.

Key words: Atomic system, Solar system, Central force, Interaction ranges, e/m ratio, non-identical electron.

History of electric charge

Thomson was experimenting on electric currents inside vacuum glass tube and investigating on the long-standing puzzle known as “cathode ray”. He made a bold proposal that, cathode rays are streams of particles much smaller than atom they are in fact minuscule pieces of atoms. It was startling to imagine a particle residing inside atom, particularly, when the atom was considered indivisible and the most fundamental unit of matter. Thomson made a breakthrough in looking to the structure of a so-called structure-less atom. Cathode rays were material constituents of atoms, turned out to be correct. The rays are made up of electrons. Thomson showed that charge to mass ratio, e/m, of electron was independent of cathode material. He further showed that the negatively charged particles produced by radioactive materials, by heated materials and by illuminated materials were universal. His experiment measured the force on tiny charged droplets of oil suspended against gravity between two metal electrodes. Knowing the electric field, the charge on the droplet could be determined. Repeating the experiment for many droplets, Millikan showed that the results could be explained as integer multiples of a common value (1.592 × 10^-19 coulomb). He then attributed the lowest charge of the oil drop as the charge of a single electron. This is somewhat lower than the modern value of 1.602 176 53(14) x 10^-19 coulomb.

Electrons may not be identical

Millikan’s technique of measurement of electric charge of the oil droplet and finding the charge of the droplet as integer multiple of a common value is simply outstanding however this author argues that the lowest charge in the oil droplet is not due to the attachment of a single electron. The microscopic surface structure (surface atomic arrangement) of the oil the droplet reveals the possible sites of attachment of electrons. For visualizing the geometrical contour of the surface of the oil drop, the oil drop may have to be magnified by many orders. The smooth surface of the oil droplet in macro scale becomes highly uneven in microscopic atomic scale. The surface atoms of oil drop are arranged in different three-dimensional array (representing atoms of different kinds and in different position of lattice sites). In micro scale, the surface shows different pattern of symmetry forming different groups of cavities with different surface features of pits/cavities due to atomic arrangement. Fig. 1 shows the schematic view of the rough surface of the oil drop when magnified. The total surface of the oil droplet is formed by repetition of unit surface pattern. The unit surface contains one cavity of each potential level. The unit surface of the oil droplet is shown schematically in Fig. 2.

The uneven surface atomic arrangement of the oil drop forms different groups of charge potential cavities which promote selective electron attachment in lot-by-lot responding to different levels of charge potential. The charge potential cavities are the probable sites for electron attachment. All cavities do not have same potential level. The surface cavity potentials are classified into few groups depending on the cavity potential. The cavities of each group have one potential level and different groups of cavities have different potentials. Hence the electron attachment affinity can be grouped according to the charge potential levels of cavities. The higher level potential cavities have stronger affinity for electron attachment on the droplet. Depending on the surface molecular structure, different levels of potential wells (cavities) are formed. Each unit surface comprises one charge-potential-cavity from each potential level. Hence the surface of the oil drop has equal number of charge potential cavities in each potential level. The driving force for electron attachment is low for lower potential cavities. Thus electrons are attached first only at highest level of potential cavities. Only after filling up the cavities of highest potential level, the electron attachment takes place at next lower level of potential cavities and then electrons fill the next lower level of potential cavities. Let n be the number of sites (potential cavities) in each level. Hence electrons are attached on the oil droplet in steps of quantum jump as n, 2n, 3n or 4n. For this reason Millikan found the electric charge of the oil droplet as integer multiple of a common value which he erroneously attributed as the charge of a single electron.

Unit surface contains representative surface cavities from each group of space potential cavities. The surface of oil droplet has n numbers of unit surfaces hence n number of charge potential cavities in each level.

It is possible that all free electrons in a given local background condition can have same e/m value. Thus the free electrons in a fixed background potential prevailing on the surface of the earth have the same e/m value. According to the new concept of gravity, particles with higher value of e/m move downward (into the ground) and those having lower value of (e/m) move upward. This phenomenon is easily understood from the new physical concept of charge and new basic interactions of mass and space [2]. Thus it is proper to assume that electrons have a range of sizes, charge and mass while their e/m values remain constant in a given background space potential, say that prevailing on the surface of the earth or at any fixed level of atmosphere. Each electron, large or small has the equal chance to respond to attachment in the potential cavity on the surface of the oil droplet.

Consider n number of cavities in each level of charge potential cavity. What Millikan assumed as one electron attachment in the oil droplet, in reality, corresponds to a lot of large number of electrons with different masses and charges having the same e/m values. The charge q of the oil drop with n number electrons with varying charge and mass is nearly same. Considering n number of electrons with different charges and masses filled up in each group of charge potential cavity. It is feasible to have different quantum charge-states of oil droplets in Millikan experiment even with the change of concept. Thus the charge states of oil droplets can have values as q, 2q, 3q … The group effect of real electrons on the surface of the droplet if assumed as the effect of a single electron then the hypothetical electron represent the cumulative charge and mass of real electrons.

To visualize the new concept, if one picks up say 1000 sand particles at random from a sand source and takes the weight he would find the weight of 1000 sand particles to be nearly same in every time he repeats his experiment. This experiment does not conclude that the sand particles are identical. Millikan oil drop experiment measures the charge of oil drop contributed by one lot of electrons but Millikan erroneously attributed the charge of oil drop as if contributed by a single electron. Thus the hypothesized electrons though considered identical but the real electrons have a range of size with varying mass and charge, however, the value of e/m remains constant for all electrons in the lot. A group of electrons having same e/m ratio exhibits identical deflection in a given electric field. This allows variation of both mass and charge of individual electron similar to variation in mass and charge of planets. A planet is one domain up in size of electrons and we have seen it carries celestial charge. This author has shown the existence of different non-electric charges in matters of other domains [1].

Mass of electron

The mass of electron is known to be 9.10933837 x 10^-31kg. What is the significance of this accurate mass of electron when the present electron is the representative of large number of real electrons? We have simply assumed the charge of electron as one electronic charge and determined the mass to higher degree of accuracy from the experimental value of e/m. Greater is the accuracy of experimental finding of e/m greater is the accuracy of evaluated mass of electron. If now we make a different approach and assume the mass of electron is one basic mass unit then we get a scope to evaluate the charge of electron accurately from the experimental value of e/m and the assumed unit mass of electron. If the value of mass and charge change in proportion to one another then, the value of e/m remains invariant. We have no means to directly evaluate both e and m from the experimental value of e/m. We assumed electrons are identical and each carries unit charge. The mass of electron is evaluated based on above assumptions. Thus the mass of electron is not obtained from experiment. If one ignores the identical nature of electron and emphasize on e/m it opens up new avenue for variation of mass and charge of electron while keeping the experimental value of e/m of electron intact. By this new analysis, we are one step ahead in our march towards finding similarity between solar system and atomic system.

By assuming the mass of each electron same we fail to understand the difference between energy and energy-level of electron. The energy level decides the feasibility of a work function. If the work function is feasible only then energy comes into picture to know the extent of work done. The less known charge potential of electron (energy level of an electron) is decisive parameter whether a charge particle can overcome a charge field barrier but not the charge (energy). Without realizing this, we confuse how some electrons cross a field barrier with less energy than required to cross the barrier. To provide some reasoning for the above phenomenon scientists have accepted unscientific reasoning for tunneling of electron which states, ‘some electrons think the barrier is small and they have more energy to overcome the barrier which they do. How much we are justified in accepting this logic for tunneling of electrons in science?

Conclusion

The real electrons are of different sizes with different mass and charge. This new concept of electron is in the light of the uniformity of nature in different domains. One need not worry for how to deal with the physics and chemistry of matter when the well-established discrete quanta of charge and mass are changed! According to this author, if the defective concept of electron can explain some aspect of nature then the real electron can explain all aspects of nature. The new concept of electron helps to come out of the dogmatic concept of electron thereby helping scientists to explore many realities of nature.

Reference

Eleceric and non-electric charges in matters of different domain (Page168), Dynamics of Universe interplay of matter, space and charge, vol.3. Published by Gyanajuga Publication, 2012.
https://philosophyofnature.org.in/basic-constituents-of-universe-and-their-interactions.

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Electric and Non-Electric Charges and Their Inter-Conversion

Bishnu Charanarbinda Mohanty — Mon, 25 Dec 2023 11:59:01 +0000

Abstract

The constituent of matter at any stage and in any domain being only mass and space and charge being a state property of matter, different varieties of charges (electric charge, photonic charge and celestial charge) can be unified. Basically charge appears in a matter coexisting with other matters when the said matter has a different proportion of its constituents (mass and space) where other matters in the local environment maintain a uniform proportion of mass and space. The strength and range of charge interaction of different category of charges appearing in matters of different domains is purely a function of dimension hence a function of geometry. When micro particles carrying electric charge becomes a constituent of macro celestial body they assume the dimension of the celestial body and the collective external interaction of micro charge particles follow the geometry of macro celestial body thereby converts to celestial charge. Similarly light particles carrying photonic charge when absorbed in a micro particle interacts externally follows the geometry of micro particle thereby photonic charge converts to electric charge.

Key words: Electric charge, Non-electric charge, Charge interaction, Charge conversion, Charge of photon, Charge of planet, Charge of Sun.

Discussion

Matter exists in many domains [1] and matter in every domain is a mass-space integral system. If matters of one domain in a locality possess mass proportionate space holding they are neutral to one another. The relative charge potential of neutral matters with respect to the potential of the locality is zero. But each matter in the locality has absolute charge potential for its mass content per unit of space holding. Pure space without mass has zero absolute potential. However existence of pure space is hypothetical case. If the space holding per unit of mass in a matter is less than the equilibrium space holding in a locality then said matter carries positive charge. On the other hand if the space holding per unit of mass in a matter is more than the equilibrium space holding in a locality then said matter carries negative charge. This phenomenon applies equally to matters carrying non-electric charges. However, the strength and range of interaction of non-electric charges differs from electric charges. Hence the charges in matters of different domains are of different category. Charge possessed in micro particles is known as electric charge. The author designates the non-electric charges as photonic charge for light particles and celestial charge for celestial bodies. At present we understand only the electric charge and carry a notion, no other charge exists in nature. Some scientists anticipated presence of fractional electronic charge in light particles (Photon). They examined interaction of light particles in a strong electric field but when the light particles did no deflect in electric field they concluded that light particles are neutral particles. The right conclusion of the experiment would have been that light particles do not carry electric charge. How can one say the light particles are neutral particles without examining for other forms of charges? The author has shown elsewhere that light particles have mass in photonic mass units even if its mass in atomic mass units is zero. Again light particles can have photonic charge in non-equilibrium state of mass-space association. The author has explained different phenomena of light by considering light particles having mass and photonic charge without the help of wave concept [2].

In the new concept, any class of charge in any domain is a function of non-equilibrium state of mass-space association relative to the local surrounding. A mass rich particle/body having more mass per unit of space holding than that of neutral matter carry positive charge in a relative scale. A space rich particle/body having more space holding per unit of mass than that of neutral matter carry negative charge. From here onwards we will use the narration, a mass rich particle/body carry positive charge and space rich particle/body carry negative to abridge the correct statement stated above. Thus a mass rich micro particle carries positive electric charge and a space rich micro particle carries negative electric charge. Likewise a mass rich light particle (photon) carries positive photonic charge and a space rich light particle (photon) carries negative photonic charge. Again a mass rich celestial body carries positive celestial charge and a space rich celestial body carries negative celestial charge. The following paragraph explains how matter carrying one category of charge (say, celestial charge) is influenced by releasing or absorbing particles carrying other category of charges (electric charge and photonic charge).

How absorption of mass rich photons on a celestial body changes the celestial charge state of the body?

The sun-facing side of the earth receives sunlight which is mass rich photons. By absorbing mass-rich solar photons the surface matters of the earth becomes mass rich thereby the sun facing side of earth becomes positively charged with celestial charge. On the other hand the far side of the earth does not receive solar radiation (mass rich photons) but receives the space rich photons (Cosmic Microwave Background radiation). By absorbing space rich background radiation the surface of the earth on far side becomes negatively charged with celestial charge. The phenomenon described for the earth applies to all planets of the sun. Hence it is necessary to include the celestial charge interaction along with gravity for the dynamics of solar system. Unlike the short range interaction of electric charge the celestial charge interaction is a long range interaction. Hence gravitational interaction and celestial charge interaction can be clubbed. The clubbed centripetal force can be justified from gravity alone particularly when the celestial charge is not known. However many aspects of celestial dynamics which remains unnoticed can be identified analysed from the new concept of charge.

We know the sun also releases charge particles (ions and electrons) which is known as solar wind. The solar wind interacts with earth’s magnetic field and the electrons are guided by earth’s magnetic field and make field aligned current to reach the polar region and positive ions and protons forms a proton belt at high altitude. The earth and its extra-nuclear structure form one integral system, hence accumulation of electric charge particles within the terrestrial system modifies the celestial charge state of terrestrial system which has a say on the dynamics of solar system.

The earth comprises atomic particles and photonic particles (in the new concept). Therefore electric charge interaction and photonic charge interaction is feasible within earth but externally the celestial charge interaction is feasible. Similarly the nucleus of atom interacts externally with electric charge, but internally only the photonic charge activity is feasible. The atomic nucleus radiates micro photons which are one domain down the domain of photon. They too have in micro photonic mass units therefore can have both positive and negative micro photonic charge. Photons and micro photons carrying respective charges when absorbed in electric charge bearing particles can change the electric charge state of micro particle.

Conclusion

Identification of different varieties of charges and conversion of one variety of charge to another when the constituent charge particles of one domain form a constituted structural body in larger domain is a big asset for understanding the dynamics of solar system, and functional property of micro particles in characterizing macro properties of matter. This has scope to understand how background radiation influences the conscious mind to sense invisible objects & events which ordinarily are not observable. Thus the new knowledge helps remove the barrier between material science and spiritual science.

Reference

https://philosophyofnature.org.in/different-domains-of-nature
New particle theory of light removes duality (Page-227), Dynamics of Universe interplay of matter, space and charge, vol.3. Published by Gyanajuga Publication, 2012.

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How Nucleus and Electron Carry Electric Charge

Bishnu Charanarbinda Mohanty — Mon, 25 Dec 2023 11:56:40 +0000

Abstract

In the existing concept electric charge is a separate fundamental property of matter. This author argues that mass and space are the only two fundamental entities in the universe, whereas the charge is the state property of the matter. In the new concept, matter in any domain is a mass-space integral system. A matter with non-equilibrium space holding in a locality of other matters having equilibrium space holding (mass proportionate space holding) is in charged state. If the space holding is less than the equilibrium space holding then the matter is positively charged and if the space holding is more than the equilibrium space holding then it is negatively charged. It becomes necessary to understand the mass-space structure of so-called fundamental particles to understand the presence of charge from its non-equilibrium mass-space structure. Following uniformity of nature, the author has modelled the internal structure of fundamental particles from the nature of internal structure of celestial bodies and shown how charge appears in nucleus of atom and electron.

Key words: Fundamental property, Mass-space structure, Non-equilibrium structure, Charge derivation.

Discussion

In the new concept, matter at any stage in any domain is a mass-space integral system. Due to mass-space attraction the mass of the nucleus forms its extra-nuclear space structure surrounding the nucleus. Neutral matters in the state of mass-space equilibrium in a locality hold mass proportionate space content where each matter has same space holding per unit of mass [1]. Matters behave neutral to one another in the state of mass-space equilibrium. If somehow any matter has less or more space holding than the equilibrium space holding of matters in the locality then, said matter becomes reactive to restore mass-space equilibrium in the locality. An atom in the state of mass-space equilibrium is electrically neutral whereas matter with less space holding than that in neutral state is positively charged and matter with more space holding than that in neutral state is negatively charged. The bare nucleus formed by removing the extra-nuclear space structure of neutral atom is positively charged implying less space holding per unit of mass i.e. mass rich particles are positively charged. The nucleus of a neutral atom being positively charged evidences that the extra-nuclear space structure of atom carries negative charge. The extra-nuclear space structure in the new concept has space density graded structure containing space matter particles and orbital electrons. Each component of the extra-nuclear structure has higher space content per unit of mass compared to that of neutral atom thereby the components of extra-nuclear structure are negatively charged. In an alternative language, the mass rich nuclei carry positive charge and the space rich electrons carry negative charge. We need to understand how space is stored in nuclei of atom and electrons and further understand how the stored space per unit of mass of electron is much more compared to that of atomic nucleus in order to justify their respective charges.

It is relatively easy to perceive how space is stored in compressed form in extra-nuclear space structure of atom but difficult to comprehend how space is stored within the nucleus of atom, orbital electrons and space matter particles. The net space content of an atom is the algebraic sum of space contents present in different components of atom. We might get surprised when we come to know that the unnoticed space contents in the nuclei of atom and electrons far exceed the space content of equal volume of extra-nuclear space structure. We shall subsequently see the electrons hold more space content per unit of mass than that of neutral atom. Hence, attachment or detachment of an electron to/from a neutral atom can change the charge state of atom by changing the space holding per unit of mass of the atom. It is difficult to imagine the mechanism by which space is stored in nucleus of atom and electrons. To find the hidden-space present in fundamental and elementary particles one need to understand the internal structure of these particles. Prior to discovery of atomic matter, we were ignorant of the space pockets within a piece of iron, gold, silver or a solid oxide. When we came to know the structure of atom, we could know all forms of solid macro matter is made of atoms and the entire volume of matter is compressed space only leaving a tinny volume of the nuclei of atoms, electrons and less known space matter particles. Now in the new concept of compact space with different space-density (space content per unit volume) the space holding per unit mass of matter can be easily visualized. Hence, to understand the mass-space structures of atomic nuclei and electrons, need understanding of the constituents of these particles in micro-micro domain and their mass-space structures.

In the existing concept, the nucleus of atom is formed by nucleons where the nucleus and the nucleons are particles of micro domain. This author takes a different view on the structure of nucleus of atom and electrons. The solar system and atomic system are systems in two different domains yet both systems have some similarities. Both systems show similarities in respect of having nuclei and orbital bodies/particles. This author assumes additional similarity of internal structures of nucleus and orbital bodies/particles in both systems. It is relatively easy to study the constituents and internal structure of a celestial body (say the earth) but difficult to examine the constituents and internal structure of nucleus of atom and electron. We find all celestial bodies are made of atomic particles. In other words, the centrally organized macro celestial bodies are constituted of micro particle which is one domain below the domain size of the celestial body. It is never seen; a large celestial body is made of smaller celestial bodies. This breed doubt on the existing structural model of atomic nucleus comprising nucleons both being particles of one domain. This author argues that the nuclei of atoms and electrons are composed of particles of one domain below the domain size of nucleus of atom and electrons. This is more so after the identification of matter value (rest mass) of light particles [2]. The light particles having mass in photonic mass units are micro-micro particles of matter and they too have extra-nuclear space structure similar to atomic structure due to mass-space interaction maintaining uniformity of nature [1]. We shall now examine how space is stored in the internal structure of the earth and then extend the same to structural mechanism of nuclei of atoms and electrons to understand the space holding in them thereby understand the nature of electric charge present in them from the new concept of charge.

How space is stored within the internal structure of the earth?

The earth is the nucleus of terrestrial system (the earth with its extra-nuclear space structure containing atomic & molecular space matter particles and the orbital moon). We know the crust of the earth is composed of atomic matter but not very sure on the state of atomic matter in deep interior. Atomic matter has dense mass in its nucleus and compact space in its extra-nuclear space structure. Therefore, atoms are storehouse of both mass and space in a space medium. Hence the crust of the earth, composed of atomic matter, is a huge store house of space. We also know the temperature within the earth goes on increasing from surface to the center of the earth. One perhaps cannot assume the interior atoms of the core of the earth to have the same number of extra-nuclear electronic shells as found in atoms of the crust. Due to thermal ionization, the inner atoms are expected to have reduced number of electronic shells. The temperature distribution in the internal structure of the earth cannot be ascertained by direct measurement as is not accessible to us. Therefore, the internal thermal structure of the earth is prepared by theoretical considerations using thermodynamic-laws experienced on the surface of the earth. The thermal model takes it for granted that the thermodynamic laws are extendable up to the core of the earth. The actual temperature profile of internal structure may be higher from the predicted values of the model. It may so happen that the core of the earth is not build up by atomic matter but by positive ions and for hot celestial bodies the core may have built up by bare nuclei of atoms in fused state. If one proceeds from surface towards center of a hot celestial body (hypothetical case), he would progressively notice neutral atoms, singly ionized atoms, doubly ionized atoms, triply ionized atoms and so on, finally finding the bare nuclei of atoms as the constituent of the inner core in fused state. The interior atomic particles are positive ions in the terrestrial relative charge potential scale that assumes the charge potential of the surface of the earth as zero. However, the interior atoms are neutral atoms in their prevailing charge state of locality where the prevailing charge potential is taken as zero in respective relative scale. If an atom from the surface of a celestial body moves towards the core, then its outer electrons will be detached thereby exposing the electrons of inner electronic shell as valence electrons. Thus the physics and chemistry of matter forming the internal structure of a celestial body is different from that on the surface of the celestial body [2]. In any case the space holding per unit mass of atom goes on decreasing towards the core of the celestial body. Thus if an inner atom of a celestial body is abruptly brought to the surface, it would appear as positive ion. On the other hand, if a surface atom of a celestial body is abruptly taken deep into the celestial body, it would be identified as a negative ion in the new locality.

The internal structure of any celestial body, say our earth has core, outer core, mantel and crust. All celestial bodies including the stars have same kind of internal structure [3]. This author has shown elsewhere that the presently known gaseous/plasma sun, in reality, has internal structure similar to that of our earth but having different magnitudes (volumes) of its core, outer core, mantel and crust. The sun has a larger core and a thin crust but the planets have smaller core and thick crust. For simpler analysis of charge characterization of mass-space structure of celestial bodies, we may assume the internal structure of a celestial body comprises a core and a crust ignoring other intermediate shell-structures. The core matter of a celestial body has less space holding per unit of mass due to reduced electronic shells while the crust matter has more space holding per unit of mass due to additional extra-nuclear structure. The core as a whole carries positive celestial charge and the crust as a whole carries negative celestial charge in some charge relative scale. The net charge value of the celestial body is the algebraic sum of charges of core and the crust. In a relative charge scale, the charge of nucleus celestial body (the sun) is positive due to large size of core and thin crust and that of its orbital body (planet) is negative due to smaller core diameter and thick crust. Then what happens to the celestial charges of earth and moon in earth-moon system? The earth being the nucleus and moon as orbital body in earth-moon system, the earth is expected to carry positive celestial charge and the moon is expected to carry negative celestial charge. The moon has smaller core and thicker crust compared to that of the earth. Thus the space holding per unit of mass of the moon is more than that of the earth. Hence in a different relative charge potential scale the earth’s celestial charge becomes positive and moon’s celestial charge becomes negative. The mechanism of possessing charge in matters of different domains remaining same, the charge in micro Particles (atomic nuclei and electrons) is identified as electric charge. The particles/bodies of other domains possess different non-electric charges (photonic charge in light particles and celestial charge in celestial bodies). The charges in particles/bodies of different domains are different because their interaction ranges and the strengths of interaction are different. We need to understand how the interaction ranges and strength of interaction are different for different nature of charges even when the cause of the charge remains the same?

How nucleus of atom is positively charged and electron is negatively charged?

Indian philosophy based on Vedic accepts assumed similarity of structure and features in different domains and achieved success in spiritual front. One of the most central assumptions of the Hindu tradition is that the macrocosm, the entire Universe, and all its component systems and sub-systems (including the human body as the microcosm) are structured in the same way, and operate according to the same principles. This author values the above tradition of Sanatan-Dharma (Hindu Dharma) which is derived from the doctrine of Vedic science. The author argues that the structure and features of nuclei of atoms and electrons have similarity with the structure and features of celestial bodies. Hence the structure of nucleus of atom and electron can be assumed similar to the structure of a celestial body (say the earth). By this hypothesis the structural constituents of atomic nuclei and electrons become particles of micro-micro domain (light particles) and the light particles have extra-nuclear space structure with orbital particles similar to atomic system and solar system. The author designates the orbital particles of photon as pholectrons. Thus the light particles (photons) and orbital pholectrons have nucleus and extra-nuclear space structures. Now it becomes easier to speculate the mass-space structure of nuclei of atoms and electrons in the light of the mass-space structure of the earth. Thus the atomic nucleus with less space holding than its equilibrium space holding becomes positively charged and the electrons having higher space holding per unit of mass become negatively charged following the new concept of charge in matter.

How the charge interaction ranges and strengths of electric and non-electric charges are different?

Larger domain bodies are many orders larger than smaller domain particles. Thus the dimension and mass contents of a higher domain body is many orders larger than a lower domain matter particle. Light particles, atomic and subatomic particle, stars and sub-stellar bodies and galaxies belongs to different domains. The maximum distance of mass-space interaction of a nucleus depends on the mass content of the nucleus. Hence the maximum interaction distance of a micro particle carrying electric charge is smaller by many orders from the maximum interaction distance of a celestial body carrying celestial charge. Similarly, the maximum interaction distance of a light particle carrying photonic charge is smaller by many orders from the maximum interaction distance of micro particle carrying electric charge. On the other hand, the minimum interaction distance of any particle in any domain is limited to the radius of the particle/body. Thus the interaction ranges of charge bearing particle/body in different domains make big quantum jump. The strength of the inverse square forces increases by many-many orders when the dimension of the particle is reduced by many orders. The high density of matter is an additional factor in reducing the size of the particle hence increasing the strength of the force interaction.

Conclusion

Modern science deals with charge bearing particles and their properties and interactions but does not explore how charge appears in proton and electron. In the new concept charge is a function of mass-space association in non-equilibrium state. This paper explained how space is stored in nucleus of atom and electron by exploring into the fine structure of nucleus of atom and electron formed by micro-micro domain particles (light particles) similar to the structure of celestial bodies formed by atomic matter. The new structure of atomic nucleus and electron reveals how space is stored within nucleus of atom and electron. The different extent of space holding of atomic nucleus and electron enable them to carry positive and negative charge respectively following the new concept of charge. This new finding unifies matter (mass-space integral system) and the charge which opens up new scope of unification of mass bearing force (gravity) and the charge bearing forces. Further the new concept of charge from mass-space structure helps to identify other non-electric charges present in matters of other domains. Thus the new finding helps to establish additional evidences towards finding similarity between solar system and atomic system.

Reference

1. https://philosophyofnature.org.in/basic-constituents-of-universe-and-their-interactions.

2.https://philosophyofnature.org.in/different-domains-of-nature/.

3.The solid/liquid sun- not a remote possibility (Page-153), Dynamics of Universe, Interplay of matter, space and charge, vol.-3.

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New concept of electric charge in matter

Bishnu Charanarbinda Mohanty — Mon, 25 Dec 2023 11:43:28 +0000

Abstract

Electric charge is seen to exist as the intrinsic property of some micro particles such as proton, electron carrying unit positive and negative charge respectively and different types of quarks carrying fraction of charges. Beyond this we have little knowledge as to how charge appears in matter? What bearing it has with mass and space? Whether charge is a state property of matter (mass-space integral system)? How charge is distributed in the structure of the particle? In the new concept, mass and space are the only two physical entities of the universe and the basic interactions are mass-space, mass-mass and space-space. We have seen how the basic mass-space interactions explain the formation of new extra-nuclear space structure of atom and celestial bodies from mass-space interactions and how the basic interactions is the common cause of both Newtonian gravity and space-time gravity. Unlike Newtonian mass attraction gravity, the new concept of gravity is free from possibility of collapse of the universe. Again, the new mass-space interactions explain why the dense space-matter-particles (atoms and molecules) in the atmosphere of the earth do not settle down to the surface of the earth? Why gravity acts on group of atoms but not to individual atoms? In this article the author argues that electric charge appears in matter in the non-equilibrium state of mass-space association.

Key Words: Cause of Charge, Charge from mass-space structure, Relative charge, Charge state of matter, Positive negative charge is mathematical, Charge neutrality, Mass-space interaction, Gold-leaf experiment.

Introduction

Due to the basic mass-space interactions, matter in any domain, forms a mass-space integral system. If the space holding per unit of mass in all matters in a locality is same then the matters are in a state of mass-space equilibrium where they are neutral to one another. Matters in the state of mass-space equilibrium may be characterized as neutral matters. Any matter having non-equilibrium space holding in a surrounding of neutral matters is an active matter in the surrounding. Matter in active state is referred to as matter carrying charge in the new concept. The author further argues that electric charge is one type where negative and positive values of charge appear in relative scale. Charge interaction appears in matter only in a charge potential difference. The author has analyzed the Gold-Leaf-Experiment and argues that the observed separation of gold leaves is not due to repulsion of the charged gold leaves but due to the charge attraction from so-called neutral bodies from opposite sides. Thus the phenomenon of neutrality of matters in equal potential state is erroneously interpreted in rendering a universal status of neutral matter.

Discussions

Self-existence of electric charge without mass is never found in nature, thus one may argue, electric charge is not a separate physical entity but only a state property of matter. In the new concept, matter in any domain and in any state is a mass-space integral system [1]. Dense mass particles (nuclei of atoms) in a locality capture space in proportion to mass of nuclei due to mass-space attraction where they are in mass-space equilibrium [1]. Matters in the state of mass-space equilibrium are neutral to one another hence they may be referred to as neutral matter with equilibrium space holding. But a neutral matter of one locality having a definite space holding per unit of mass if enters into another locality where the equilibrium space holding per unit of mass is different from that of first locality then the so-called neutral matter becomes an active matter in the new locality. Thus, the phenomenon of neutrality of matter is conditional and not universal. A neutral matter on the surface of the earth may not be a neutral matter on the surface of another celestial body. Hence there is nothing like a universally neutral atom in all frames of reference. Again, the interaction of active matter is only local. Therefore, the neutral atom concept has significance only with respect to a given background condition. Any matter having non-equilibrium space holding in a locality is an active matter in that locality. One may argue, matter in some form of mass-space non-equilibrium in a locality possesses electric charge with respect to the said locality. And further, in this new concept, if the space holding per unit of mass of a micro charge-particle is less than that of its equilibrium value then the charge is positive in a relative scale. On the other hand, if the space holding per unit of mass of a charge-particle is more than that of its equilibrium value then the charge is negative in relative scale. The degree/percentage of shortage or surplus space-holding per unit of mass of the charge-particle compared to neutral matter is the measure of charge potential of the respective charge in the new concept of charge interpreted from mass-space structure of matter.

Matter possesses heat by virtue of its thermal state property (temperature). An electric capacitor possesses electric charge by virtue of its charge state property (voltage). Interesting enough modern science is silent about the charge state of the nucleus of atom or electron by virtue of which the particle holds charge. However, in the new concept of charge, we have scope to know the charge potential as well as the charge of nucleus and electrons.

(equilibrium-space-holding per unit of mass of a neutral particle – space-holding per unit of mass of particle in charge state)

Relative electric Charge potential =——————————————————————————————————————–

(equilibrium-space-holding per unit of mass of neutral particle)

Relative electric charge in a particle = Electric charge potential of the particle x mass of the particle.

Thus, mass rich particles compared to neutral matter carries positive charge and space rich particles compared to neutral matter carries negative charge. Pure space without mass has zero absolute charge and the absolute charge goes on increasing with the increase of mass per unit space holding. Hence in the new concept, matter at any stage has an absolute charge potential. Though neutral matter has zero relative charge potential but it has an absolute charge potential. The characterization of positive and negative charge comes only from the state of the mass-space association therefore both positive and negative charges have one type absolute charge potential, hence one type of charge. This is in contrast to the existing concept of two types of charges. Subsequently we shall see as to how the so-called two types of charges, in reality, is only one type.

The atoms on the surface of the earth are neutral to one another. All atoms have nuclei and extra-nuclear structures. In the new concept, the extra-nuclear structure of atom comprises a space density graded space structure containing space matter particles and orbital particles (electrons) [2]. If we remove the extra-nuclear structure of an atom, then the bare nucleus with reduced space holding per unit of mass becomes positively charged. Then it becomes obvious that the extra-nuclear structure as a whole possesses negative charge. Any partial loss of extra-nuclear structure of an atom makes the remaining atom a positive ion. The lost extra-nuclear structure contains compact space with space-matter particles and orbital electrons. The nucleus of an atom is a mass rich particle with lower space holding per unit of mass as compared to that of atom with equilibrium space holding. Both the compact space with space matter particles and the electrons have more space holding per unit mass as compared to that of neutral atom. Relatively the nucleus of atom is a mass rich particle and the electrons are space rich particles. In the new concept, both positive and negative charges are caused due to non-equilibrium space holding per unit of mass. Hence, the mass content per unit of space-holding is the measure of absolute charge state of matter which becomes positive or negative when characterized in a charge relative scale. A positive charge characterized in a low charge potential locality becomes a negative charge when shifted to a high charge potential locality. Neutral matter with zero relative charge has definite mass content per unit of space holding hence has definite absolute charge potential and absolute charge. Neutralization of positive and negative charges is feasible only if the charges are one type. This implies, charge neutralization is not feasible if the charges are different types. For example: The vacancy created by removing a mango from a fruit basket cannot be replenished by putting an apple in the vacancy.

Neutralization of thermal potential (temperature) takes place by mixing hot matter and cold matter. This is feasible because the positive temperature and negative temperature in relative scale is one type of thermal property in absolute scale. Both electrical and thermal interactions take place in respective potential differences. The interaction between positive and negative charges is in agreement with the interaction in a potential difference. The repulsion of similar charges at same potential is a strong proof for existence of two types of charges. How can the electric charge be one type for some purpose and be two types for some other purpose? Experimental evidences cannot go wrong. Thus an electric charge has to be one type for neutralization of positive and negative charges and again the electric charges has to be dissimilar to justify: similar charges repel & dissimilar charges attract. The above characterization is backed by experimental evidence. However, this author argues, an experimental observation may lead to erroneous conclusion if the interpretation of experimental result is not proper. The present author reviewed the Gold-Leaf Experiment to find any possible error in the interpretation of Gold-Leaf Experiment.

New interpretation of Gold-Leaf Experiment

A simple gold-leaf electroscope is shown in Fig.1. It consists of two strips of very thin gold leaves G₁ and G₂ suspended side by side from the lower end of the brass rod C which carries a flat brass disc D at its upper end and is supported by an ebonite insulator.

The leaf system is protected by a glass bell jar. On the inner wall of the bell jar and facing the gold leaves there are two strips of tin foils F₁ and F₂. The tin foils at the inner wall are connected to the external terminal and are earthed. Now if a charged body is brought in contact with the disc D then some charge from the charged body will be conducted to the disc and then into the leaves. When the leaves get charged, the leaves G₁ and G₂ are attracted towards F₁ and F₂ respectively due to the charge potential difference. The attraction potential between G₁ and G₂ as well as F₁ and F₂ are zero due to equal potential condition. The gold leaf G₁ gets attracted towards the nearest tin plate F₁ and gold leaf G₂ gets attracted towards the nearest tin plate F₂ due to charge attraction in a charge potential difference. One can as well proceed to find the independent motion of G₁ and G₂ from the differential charge field in the surrounding medium even without the presence tin plates.

Scientists aiming to study the interaction of similar charges in the designed experiment see only the mutual separation of gold leaves because they are already expecting a mutual charge interaction, thus giving them motivation to conclude that similar charges repel. On the other hand, this author, with the new postulate that the charge interaction takes place only at a charge potential difference, sees that the gold leafs are attracted towards the tin foils having potential difference. And the mutual interaction between G₁ and G₂ is zero due to equal potential state. Now the experiment remaining same the earlier conclusion of repulsion of similar charges can be described as, similar charges behave neutral to one another. Here we notice, what we intend to find often influence our mid to note what we found. Attraction of positive and negative charges agrees with the charge interaction in a potential difference and the charges are of same type. But repulsion of similar charge is established from the results of Gold-Leaf-Experiment. This author argues that the gold-leaves at same electric potential do not repel one another however; the gold leaves are separated from one another being pulled by so-called neutral matter from opposite sides finding a potential difference. With the preconceived concept of neutral matter with absolute zero charge at absolute zero charge potential, the cause of separation of gold leaves is erroneously attributed to the charge interaction between the charged gold plates.

Conclusion

We formulate a relative scale by assuming certain absolute value as zero for the relative scale. Thus in relative scale, any absolute value below the absolute value assumed zero for the relative scale becomes negative. Negative value is not feasible in the absolute scale. For example: if 4 mangos (absolute numbers) are there on a table then no one can take 5 mangos from the table leaving one negative (-1) mango on the table. The values of any one type of property may appear positive or negative when expressed in a relative scale. Unit positive and unit negative values of any single property have the ability to neutralize one another. It is a known fact that one unit of positive electric charge neutralizes one unit of negative electric charge. Proton having + 1 electronic charge when combines with an electron having – 1 electronic charge forms a neutron with zero charge. This confirms that the +ve and –ve charges are one type and again the charge values are expressed in a relative scale. The statement that similar charges repel and dissimilar charges attract implies that the electric charges are of two types. The author hear argues that matter carries absolute charge at absolute charge potential. Charge interaction takes place only in a charge potential difference and matters at same charge potential i.e. without a potential difference are neutral to one another. The repulsion of similar charge established from gold leaf experiment can be interpreted differently to show that similar charges do not repel. Electric charge, rather in the new concept, appears in matter in non-equilibrium state of mass-space association which acknowledges the electric charge is one type.

Reference

The post New concept of electric charge in matter appeared first on Institute of Philosophy of Nature.

New Interactions of Mass and Space Is The Cause of Gravity

Bishnu Charanarbinda Mohanty — Mon, 25 Dec 2023 11:08:26 +0000

Abstract

The only component of matter according to the current theory is mass. Newton postulated that mass attracts mass and then explained gravity by seeing that matter attracted to matter. On the other hand, a mass can push space quite a bit, according to Einstein. Space may be bent, warped, pushed, or pulled by mass. He described gravity as being caused by the big objects’ effects on the curvature of space-time. The concept of relational space has changed. It now has a tangible form. As a result, it is possible for mass and space to interact. The precise nature of interactions between mass and space was not specified by Einstein. Despite having differing foundations, both theories of gravity produce results. However, several phenomena that Newton’s idea of gravity remains quiet were explained by Einstein’s theory of gravity. The basic cause of gravity cannot be different for Newton and Einstein. Therefore, the source of gravity should be able to produce Newton’s equation of gravity and encourage the warping of space around heavy things. It appears that we are unable to understand the origin of gravity. But this is inaccurate. It would be clear that the two theories of gravity complement one another in a way that we are unable to comprehend because of our incomplete knowledge of physical space. The extra-nuclear space structure that surrounds every large entity is created by the new conception of space and the new mass-space interactions [1], which supports Newtonian theory of gravity. This article uses the new fundamental interactions between mass and space to explain gravity. According to the new theory, matter is a mass-space integral system at every moment and space itself is physical. It is a space-mass integral system since physical space also contains space matter particles. The fundamental interactions of the fundamental elements (mass and space) are 1) the attraction between mass and space, 2) the repulsion between space and space, and 3) the repulsion between mass and mass [2]. In this article, the new fundamental interactions of mass and space are used to derive Newton’s gravitational equation. There is enough room to comprehend many facets of the mechanics of the solar system.

Key words: Gravity, Cause of gravity, Mass-space interaction, Cause of space-time curvature, Significance of space-time curvature.

Discussion

Newton conceptualized matter is something that has mass and occupies space. Space perceived by him was relational. Hence the attraction one matters to another is due to mass-mass attraction. If mass-attracts-mass then all mass of universe would collapse to form a large single mass, but it does not happen. Again due to mass-mass attraction the free atoms and molecules in the atmosphere of the earth would settle down to the surface of the earth which also does not happen. This breeds doubt on mass-mass attraction even though Newtonian equation of gravity has been verified experimentally and successful in explaining the dynamics of celestial bodies in solar system. On the other hand, Einstein conceptualized gravity through space-time curvature. According to Einstein mass does not attract mass but mass interacts with space and warp it by pushing or pulling. Einstein was able to explain the excess motion of the mercury at perihelion from his concept of gravity. We notice one gravitational effect but two diverse concepts. One accepts mass-mass interaction (attraction) and the other accepts mass-space interaction (attraction). Einstein conceptualized space as physical entity thereby he perceived the mass-space interaction.

This author made a humble attempt to harmonize the diverse concepts of gravity by altering the concept of matter and space in the light of Vedic science. According to Vedic science the universe is constituted of Panchamohabhuta (Prithvi, Jal, Vayu, Agni and Akash). These constituents may be interpreted as solid, liquid, gas, plasma and space. In modern science, solid, liquid, gas and plasma corresponds to different states of matter. Thus, the basic constituents of the universe reduce to mass and space, both being physical. Again according to Ayurveda all substances are mixture of 5 basic elements (panchamohabhuta), but substances have one major element. The substances are classified according to the major element present in it. Incorporating the above concept of Ayurveda in modern science reveals, matter associates space and space associates space matter particles in finer domain. This is feasible only if an interaction (attraction) exists between mass and space. Due to mass-space attraction, the mass of a nucleus celestial body or the mass of an atomic nucleus attracts space from surrounding and forms an extra-nuclear space structure surrounding the mass (nucleus). The space structure remains associated with the nucleus forming one integral system. Physical space is elastic hence it is compressible. Higher space density (space content per unit volume) could be found in compacted spaces. The inverse square law is also followed by the law of mass-space attraction. With the maximum space density at the surface of the nucleus and the lowest space density at the boundary of the space structure approaching the background space density, the related extra-nuclear space of each nucleus has a space density graded structure. As a result, one atom may store significantly more space than the space content of equal volume of background space medium. Hence an atomic system or a celestial body system is the store house of both mass and space in a background space medium. The amount of space associated with the nucleus is proportional to the mass of the nucleus. The nucleus and the extra-nuclear space structure move and rotate together as one integral system. The extra-nuclear space structure is not a rigid body therefore the spatial spinning-velocity of space structure does not maintain a constant angular velocity. It is governed by make-and-break of gravitational bonding discussed below.

Spatial spinning velocity of extra-nuclear space structure

Any space pocket in extra-nuclear space structure of a celestial body has specific space-density as well as number-density of space matter particles in proportion to the space density. The space density of extra-nuclear space structure is formed due to attraction of mass of the nucleus to the surrounding space. Again due to space-mass attraction the space matter particles are captured by dense space. The space content of extra-nuclear structure is proportional to the mass content of the nucleus and the density of space matter particles is proportional to the density of space (space content per unit volume). The space and space matter particle form one integral system. This is the reason why atomic and molecular particles (space matter particles) in the atmosphere of a celestial body do not settle down on to the surface of the celestial body due to gravity. The space matter particles sense gravity but they are not free to move within space. The space matter particles in space matrix form a composite space fluid and the composite space fluid (air) moves up or down under differential gravity. The space content of extra-nuclear space structure of a celestial body experiences attraction from the mass of the nucleus celestial body and the mass content of space matter particles in space structure experiences centrifugal force when the extra-nuclear space structure of a celestial body rotates. Thus the composite space fluid senses both gravity and centrifugal force.

The space fluid (space structure containing space matter particle) in contact with the surface of a celestial body makes gravitational bonding and rotates at same angular speed as that of the celestial body. It is for this reason we do not experience any relative wind speed due to rotation and revolution of the earth. For example a celestial body rotating at an angular velocity ꭃ has its lower level space-structure spinning at same angular velocity ꭃ. As the distance of space pocket from the nucleus body increases gravity decreases inversely as the square of distance but centrifugal force increases directly with distance.

The centripetal force (gravity) on an air pocket is given by

G MEMa/R2

And the centrifugal force on the air pocket (CF) is given by Maꭃ2 R

(Where CF= Centrifugal force; ME = Mass of the earth; Ma= Mass of air pocket; ꭃ = Angular velocity of air pocket; R= Radial distance of air pocket from center of the earth.)

When R increases, gravity decreases rapidly and CF increases linearly. At some distance (R=Rc), CF becomes equal to Gravity. Beyond Rc the CF is greater than gravity. Thus the gravitational bond breaks off and the motive torque to rotate the air pocket vanishes. Thereafter the spinning speed of air pocket slows down due to its bonding link with non-spinning inter planetary space. When the spinning speed slows down, the CF reduces and gravitational coupling is re-established. Thus the spinning speed (the spatial tangential velocity vt) of space medium assumes values given by the following equation.

vt = √ (GM/R)

The gravitational equation following mass-mass attraction does not change even when the cause of gravity is identified as mass-space interaction. This is discussed subsequently.

An artificial satellite with orbital distance less than Rc is required to revolve at higher angular speed than the angular speed of the spinning medium to remain in orbit. Such a satellite, if left to itself would quickly slow down its orbital velocity due to the relative velocity between orbital body and the space medium and gravitate towards the central body. But the orbital body orbiting above Rc has the same orbital velocity as that of its adjacent space medium, hence there is no resistance to orbital motion from the space medium. The spinning space fluid is an operator for changing linear momentum to angular momentum by continuously changing the direction of motion of orbital body. This is the basic mechanism in conservation of angular momentum of orbital celestial bodies. A float on spinning water in a bucket makes circular motion where the direction of motion of the float changes continuously by the effect of spinning water.

Gravitational equation from mass-space attraction

Consider the gravitational interaction between atom 1 and atom 2 (or between celestial body 1 and celestial body 2) from mass-space attraction (Fig.1). Atom 1 has mass m1 and space holding s1 and atom 2 has mass m2 and space holding s2. The line of action of attraction forces lies on the line joining the centre of mass and the centre of the compact space of the atoms. To avoid overlapping of the force interactions they are shown in schematically. The attraction between m1 and s2 is shown as 1 and the attraction between m2 and s1 is shown as 2.

Gravity due to mass-space attraction

F = k (m₁s₂)/d² + k (m₂s₁)/d²

where, F is the force of gravity between atoms 1 and 2, k is the constant of proportionality of mass-space attraction and d is the distance between the atoms 1 and 2.

The space content of the extra-nuclear space structure of atom is proportional to the mass content of the nucleus in a given background condition (say, earthly condition).

Hence s₁ = k’m₁ and s₂ = k’m₂, where k’ is the constant of proportionality of space holding by mass of nucleus in a given background space density condition.

Hence, the equation reduces to F = 2kk’ (m₁m₂)/d² or F=G (m₁m₂)/d²

Gravitational equation considering mass-space attraction, Space-space repulsion and mass-mass repulsion

Gravitational interaction between atom 1 and atom 2 (or between celestial body 1 and celestial body 2) is evaluated here considering mass-space attraction, space-space repulsion and mass-mass repulsion. Atom 1 has mass m1 and space holding s1 and atom 2 has mass m2 and space holding s2. All forces act on the line joining the centers of atoms. But in figure they have been shown differently for clear representation without overlapping.

Referring to figure 2 the mass space interactions (1, 2, 3, and 4) are as follows

The force interaction 1: the attraction between mass content of atom 1 and space content of atom 2.

The force interaction 2: the attraction between mass content of atom 2 and space content of atom 1.

The force interaction 3: the repulsion between mass content of atom 1 and mass content of atom 2.

The force interaction 4: the repulsion between space content of atom 1 and space content of atom 2.

Fig.2 Shows mass-space attraction, mass-mass repulsion and space-space repulsion between atom1 and atom 2 for evaluation of gravity.

Computation of gravity from net interactions of mass and space

The three interactions shown in Fig. 2 are given by-

The force interactions 1 and 2(Mass-space attraction) = k (m₁s₂)/d² + k (m₂s₁)/d²

= kk’ (m₁m₂)/d² + kk’ (m₁m₂)/d²

= 2kk’ (m₁m₂)/d²

The force interaction 3 (mass-mass repulsion) = K₂ (m₁m₂)/d²

The force interaction 4(space-space repulsion) = k₁ (s₁s₂)/d²

= k₁ (m₁k’m₂k’)/d² = k₁ (k’)² (m₁m₂)/d²

Net gravitational attraction

= 2kk’ (m₁m₂)/d² – k₁ (k’)² (m₁m₂)/d² – K₂ (m₁m₂)/d²

= {2kk’ – k₁ (k’)² – k₂} (m₁m₂)/d²

Where k is the constant of proportionality of mass-space attraction

K’ is the constant of proportionality of space holding by mass in a given background space density (earthly reference condition)

k₁ is the constant of proportionality of space-space repulsion

k₂ is the constant of proportionality of mass-mass repulsion

Now substituting {2kk’ – k₁ (k’)² – k₂} = G

We get, F = G (m₁m₂)/d₂

F is always positive therefore the mass-space attraction is stronger compared to mass-mass repulsion and space-space repulsion.

Gravity was considered universal when it explained the orbital motion. But the following questions are pertinent for the dynamics of solar system. How can we say, we completely understand the dynamics ignoring the following questions?

Unstirred questions on dynamics of solar system

Why the mass of the universe are not pulled together by mass-mass attraction gravity to form a single mass?
Why the dense free atoms and molecules in the atmosphere of celestial body do not settle down at the surface of the celestial body due to gravity?
Why the orbits of planets and satellites though elliptical but close to circle?
Why orbital bodies are not in the equatorial plane of the central gravitating body but are close to the equatorial plane?

Why the axes of the orbital bodies have a tendency to remain close to perpendicular to the equatorial plane of the central body but not exactly perpendicular?
Why the Mercury and Venus have no satellites?
What is the cause of excess motion of mercury at perihelion?
Why not a single satellite has an orbital body even though an asteroid has?
Why do Venus, Uranus and Pluto have reverse rotation?
Why do axes of the reverse rotation planets have inclinations of large obtuse angle?
Why some satellites have retrograde revolution?
Why the inclination of orbital planes of the retrograde satellites have large obtuse angles while those of direct motion satellites have small angles?
Why the locations of retrograde satellites are confined to distant outer orbits?
It is now seen that the distances of planets from the sun bears a definite correlation and also the distances of satellites of every planet bears similar correlation. Thus discrete nature of orbits exists in solar system as conceptualized in Bohr’s atomic model. Hence, the orbits of planets and satellites are no more continuous. Can gravity based dynamics of solar system throw some light on discrete nature of orbit in solar system?
Can we explain the slow motion of outer stars of galaxy without introducing the hidden mass concept?

Newton’s concept of gravity or Einstein’s concept of gravity has limitation in explaining the above questions. Thus we need a new understanding of gravity to find answer to above questions.

Conclusion

We may understand universal gravity by many different concepts but the cause of gravity (basic truth) is always one and not this way as well as that way. Every phenomenon has a local cause which is attributed to some local interlinked feature/event but the basic cause corresponds to the nature of universal interactions of the basic constituents (mass and space). This means, though the fundamental forces operating in different domains of nature (different local domains) exhibiting different characteristic interaction properties but all fundamental forces can be derived from the common universal interaction of mass and space. The universal mass-space interaction has scope of explaining electric charge in micro particles in non-equilibrium state of mass-space association where matter with equilibrium mass-space association is a neutral matter [5]. The non-equilibrium mass-space associations in matters of other domains have scope of possessing other non-electric charges. The dynamics of solar system can be better understood by taking into consideration of electric and non-electric charges in addition to gravity. The new concepts of space, extra-nuclear space structure and the rotation & revolution of space structure cannot be ignored in developing the dynamics of celestial bodies.

Reference

New basic interaction of mass and space (p-115) vol.3 Dynamics of universe- interplay of matter, space and charge. Author-B.C Mohanty, First edition 2000, ISBN978-81-89726-68-3.
Newtonian gravity falls down; Moto Milgrom. New Scientist, 7 march 1985.
Effect of deformation of extra nuclear structure (p-94) vol.6, Dynamics of universe- interplay of matter, space and charge. Author-B.C Mohanty, First edition 2018, ISBN978-93-85798-94-8.
Vol.2 Dynamics of universe- interplay of matter, space and charge. Author-B.C Mohanty, First edition 2000, ISBN 81- 900989-1-8.
New concept of charge appearing from non-equilibrium mass-space structure of matter (p-163) vol.3 Dynamics of universe- interplay of matter, space and charge. Author-B.C Mohanty, First edition 2000, ISBN978-81-89726-68-3.
Dynamics of one rotation pre revolution (p-74) vol.2 Dynamics of universe- interplay of matter, space and charge. Author-B.C Mohanty, First edition 2000, ISBN 81- 900989-1-8.

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