Abstract

 This article explores the profound parallels between ancient Indian crafts and cosmological concepts through metaphorical interpretations. Drawing inspiration from Indian philosophy and traditions, it examines how everyday crafts symbolize complex cosmic principles like cycle of time, space-time fabric, interconnectedness, fine-tuning, and the Big Bang model. The potter’s wheel illustrates the cyclic nature of the universe; the weaver’s loom and Indra’s Net reflect the intricate web of interdependence; culinary traditions echo the universe’s fine-tuned balance; and the blacksmith’s forge symbolises the oscillating cosmos. These metaphors bridge ancient wisdom with contemporary understanding. Through these symbolic narratives, the article suggests that cosmology is not only a scientific pursuit but also a deeply philosophical and artistic exploration with a sense of aesthetics. Ultimately, it demonstrates how metaphor serves as a powerful cognitive tool to grasp the complexities of the cosmos and human existence.

Keywords: Cosmology, Philosophy, Fine-tuning, Cycles of time, Big Bang, Metaphors, Craftsmanship, Aesthetics.

Introduction

 Nobel laureate physicist Franz Wilczek has asked a thought-provoking question in his book “A Beautiful question: finding nature’s deep design”– “Is the world a work of art?”. Indian philosophy says a big ‘Yes’. Every craft is associated with some centuries-old traditions, legends, philosophies, and some cosmic connections hidden in it. It plays a pivotal role in defining the history of a nation. According to Indian philosophy and metaphysics, the whole universe is an epitome of alluring art and craft, and the intelligent designer of this vast universe is the greatest craftsman. He is Vishwakarma, the architect of this universe, the painter of this world map. Man is imitating that elegant craftsmanship present throughout the cosmos. In Indian philosophy, the potter’s wheel is revered as a symbol of the cosmic cycle—creation, destruction, and the eternal rhythms of nature. This profound metaphor inspires us to delve deeper into ancient literature and craft traditions, exploring other symbolic expressions of cosmic concepts woven into the fabric of our artistic heritage. In a unique way of using metaphors, the philosophy of cosmology can be understood through these ancient crafts.

Potter and the Wheel of cosmos

 The potter makes beautiful earthen pots, moulding clay with his expert hands. 17th century Indian poet Dinakrishna Das narrates the legend of the Potter community in his book “Kurala Purana”. The importance of the theory of the cyclic universe is reflected in the “Kurala Panchami’’ festival of their culture. In Odisha’s Puri city, the potters worship their pottery wheel during this festival. This wheel represents the cyclic model of cosmology. Ever since the big bang, the universe has been expanding and cooling down. Eventually, the whole universe will end in a state of dissolution, either through heat death or a big crunch. The potter’s wheel becomes a metaphor of the wheel of time, where the end is the beginning. This nonlinear cycle exists in every corner of this elegant cosmos. The flow of energy in nature is cyclic. The energy flows from high temperature to low temperature, electric current flows from high potential to low potential, air flows from high pressure to low pressure to maintain equilibrium. Again, the state of equilibrium is disturbed and the flow of energy continues. The whole cosmos is nothing, but a sacrificial cyclic flow of energy. Seed comes from a tree and again from the seed, a new plant grows. Stars, planets, etc. originate from a nebula, and will go back to that state of nebula at the end. Many civilizations started from the banks of the river and ended again through the devastating effects of that river through floods, cyclones, change of direction etc… The cycle of creation ends where it starts. This shows the cosmic cycle of creation in action. Different cycles are observed in nature, like the cycle of seasons, water cycle, nutrient cycle, oxygen cycle, carbon cycle, waste recycle. The menstrual cycle in a female body gives birth to a new life. The rotation of planets around the Sun and the rotation of electrons around the nucleus are also some examples of cyclic processes. 

 The wheel is also a symbol of mobility. The wheel is used in everything from power generation to transportation to weaving clothes. In this context, MK Gandhi once wrote in the young India magazine, “India’s progress has been hampered by the closure of wheels and charkhas. Once again, we have to turn the wheel and make indigenous clothes and become self-reliant.” This wheel is an indicator of poverty alleviation in India.

Weaving the web of universe

 In the Vedic metaphysics, the whole cosmos is likened to the weaving of fabric by a skilled weaver. Spider’s web is used here as a metaphor to explain cosmology. This universe is also like a giant space-time fabric in which all beings are interconnected. That’s why everything in this universe is relative and all the elements are dependent on each other. There exists a mutual relationship between them. It is called tantra in Vedic philosophy, which means “weaving like a net”, just as a weaver weaves a piece of cloth. Similarly, the Buddhist concept of Indra’s Net is a profound metaphor illustrating the interconnectedness of all phenomena. Imagined as an infinite net with a jewel at each node, where every jewel reflects all others, it symbolizes the idea that every part of the universe is intimately linked with every other part. In cosmology, Indra’s Net resonates with the understanding that the universe is a dynamic, interdependent whole, where no entity exists in isolation. The metaphor’s earliest reference is found in the Atharva Veda. This ancient concept aligns with modern systems thinking and quantum interconnectedness, offering a holistic vision of reality. The interconnectedness of all existing entities also becomes an integral part of “deep ecology”, as explained by physicist Fritjof Capra in his book “The web of life”. Cognitive scientist Douglas Hofstadter, in his book “Godel, Escher, Back”, has used Indra’s net as a metaphor for the complex intertwined networks of objects in a system.

The Master Chef of the Universe

 Cooking is an art, which requires a different set of skills and experimentation techniques for preparing new dishes. Indian epics also contains many stories and anecdotes related to the chef tradition. King Nala, described in the Mahabharata, was an expert chef and had written the sanskrit text “Paka Darpana” on the art and craft of cooking. The most important formula of cooking is that the right proportion and mixture of ingredients gives a fine taste. In the same way, the systematic and harmonic design of this universe and the origin of life requires a particular ratio of combination of different organic and inorganic elements. It is called “fine tuning” in modern physics, without which the design of the universe can be different. The fine-tuning of the cosmos refers to the precise conditions that make life possible in the universe. Fundamental physical constants—such as the strength of gravity, the charge of the electron, and the rate of cosmic expansion—appear to be set at exact values that, if altered even slightly, would render the universe lifeless. This remarkable precision has led scientists and philosophers alike to ponder upon whether it is a result of chance, coincidence, necessity, or an intelligent design of creator.

Blacksmith igniting the big bang

A blacksmith makes various household appliances by banging and moulding hot iron pieces. Rig Veda, one of the oldest texts, also mentions blacksmith’s furnace as a metaphor to explain creation of the universe. Just as a blacksmith blows wind through the repeated expansion and contraction of the bellow to ignite fire, so this oscillating universe is going through continuous expansion and contraction, while the black furnace represents the super-heated big bang condition. The Big Bang theory of modern physics says that the world we see is constantly expanding and may possibly shrink in a big crunch.

Conclusion

 On the significance of metaphors in our lives, American writer marry Catherine says, “The human species thinks in metaphors and learn through stories.” This insight beautifully captures how deeply metaphors shape our understanding. In a unique way, the philosophical cosmology can be understood through these ancient crafts. Far beyond mere figures of speech, metaphors serve as cognitive bridges that connect abstract concepts to tangible experiences, allowing us to grasp the complexities of life, existence, and the cosmos. Throughout history, metaphors have not only enriched language and literature but have also been fundamental in framing philosophical and scientific inquiry. In this light, philosophical cosmology—a field that seeks to explore the origins and structure of the universe—can be meaningfully apprehended through metaphorical narratives and symbolic expressions. 

Reference

1. Capra, Fritjof. The web of life: a new scientific understanding of living systems. Anchor Books, Doubleday, 1996.
2. Wilczek, Frank. A beautiful question: finding nature’s deep design. Penguin press, 2015.
3. Capra, Fritjof. The Tao of Physics: an exploration of the parallels between modern physics and eastern mysticism. Shambala Publications, United states, 1975.
4. Malhotra, Rajiv. Indra’s Net: Defending Hinduism’s philosophical unity. HarperCollins, 2014.
5. Hofstadter, Douglas. Godel, Escher, Bach: an eternal golden braid. Basic books, United States, 1979.
6. Swami Vivekananda. The science and philosophy of religion. Advaita Ashrama, 1995.
7. Aguirre, Anthony. Cosmological koans: a journey to the heart of physical reality. Penguin Press, 2020.

Abstract

 Artificial Intelligence (AI) stands as a monumental achievement of human intellect, capable of shaping the trajectory of civilization itself. However, the question remains: does AI, in its current or evolving forms, possess consciousness? Is it merely a convergence of human language, algorithms, and hardware, or does it reflect a more profound, perhaps misunderstood, layer of existence? This paper delves into the scientific essence of AI in light of ancient Indian wisdom—especially the teachings of the Śrīmad Bhagavad Gītā—to explore AI’s ontological nature, potential dangers, and its moral implications for human society and the Earth’s ecosystems. With real-world technological examples and analysis of ancient scientific thought, this study aims to present a meaningful framework for understanding AI’s role in society, while proposing guidelines for a balanced and ethical technological future.

Keywords: Artificial Intelligence, Consciousness, Ancient Wisdom, Science of Ethics. 

Introduction

 AI is not inherently evil or good; it is a force — a neutral power shaped by the hands that guide it. Just like electricity, nuclear energy, or fire, its consequences depend on the intent behind its usage. Today, we stand at a crossroad where AI is no longer just a tool to assist human needs; it is becoming a decision-making entity, one capable of influencing the structure of our societies and even our emotional responses. While some scientists celebrate the marvels of AI’s problem-solving capabilities — from healthcare to space exploration — others express concern over the growing autonomy and unregulated deployment of these systems. The concerns are not just hypothetical; the misuse of AI is already visible in examples such as surveillance states, misinformation campaigns, and deep fake content [1]. This paper argues that we must not allow AI to evolve in a vacuum devoid of moral and ethical oversight. It must remain under the control of conscious beings, guided by responsibility and wisdom. The consequences of unchecked AI development could be as severe as any natural or manmade disaster — a silent collapse driven by misplaced faith in an artificial decision-making system.

Understanding Artificial Intelligence: Beyond Human Perception

 Artificial Intelligence (AI) is often defined as the replication of human cognitive processes within machines—enabling functions such as visual perception, speech recognition, decision-making, and language translation. However, this definition, though common, barely scratches the surface. AI is not merely a tool mimicking intelligence; it is a networked convergence of data flows, systemic logic, and material structure shaped by conscious human intention [2]. Yet, have we truly advanced enough to understand what we are creating? The answer remains partial. Current AI systems, such as OpenAI’s GPT or Google’s DeepMind, show enormous computational power but lack self-awareness, agency, or autonomy beyond what is programmed or trained through data [3]. What they reflect is a mirror to our collective digital consciousness—amplifying our biases, structures, and ideologies [4]. Still, we must not restrict AI to our present understanding. The next stage of advancement lies beyond visual sensors and algorithmic calculations. It lies in the philosophy of balance, ethics of creation, and alignment of technological progress with natural laws [5]. Ancient civilizations—especially in India—recognized that all knowledge and innovation must first understand the consequences of its use before its creation. True technology, thus, is not just invention; it is intent with purpose.

• Consciousness and Control-

 The most dangerous illusion surrounding AI is the belief that it can one day replace human consciousness. AI can simulate intelligence, process data at astonishing speed, and even mimic emotions through advanced algorithms — but it lacks true awareness, empathy, or moral judgment [6]. These are faculties unique to conscious life, particularly human beings.

 A robot or algorithm can assess a situation and provide a mathematically optimal solution, but it cannot understand the why of suffering or the purpose of a soul’s journey [7]. This is why humans must always remain the final authority in any decision involving life, emotion, or moral conflict.

 The risk lies in humans giving up this authority. When we allow machines to control processes such as justice, employment, or warfare without conscious oversight, we relinquish responsibility [8]. This isn’t progress — it is regression into unconscious automation.

Can Artificial Intelligence Turn Against Humanity?

 The dual nature of technology—its ability to uplift or destroy—depends not on the machine, but on human consciousness. The Śrīmad Bhagavad Gītā expresses this precisely:

“Samaṁpaśyan hi sarvatrasamavasthitamīśvaram |

                           Na hinastyātmanātmānaṁtatoyātiparāṁgatim ||”(Gītā13.28) [9]

Translation: One who sees the Divine equally present in all beings does not degrade themselves by their actions; such a person attains the highest state.

 Applied to technology, this wisdom urges us to develop AI that aligns with universal ethical laws. Technology should be non-harming, inclusive, and life-preserving. A system that leads to ecological harm, loss of privacy, job destruction without socio-economic balance, or biased decision-making is a misuse of intelligence—not intelligence itself.

 AI systems must be developed and implemented within strict ethical and legal boundaries. There should be global regulatory bodies — not just corporate oversight — to ensure these technologies are not misused. Every AI algorithm should be transparent, accountable, and explainable. It should serve humanity, not manipulate it.Moreover, there needs to be a deeper philosophical awareness while designing AI. Its goals must be aligned not just with material success or profit, but with well-being, peace, and collective human evolution.

• Modern Examples of Misuse and the Need for Balance

 The line between ethical use and autonomous harm is thin — and often invisible to those who focus only on technical performance and not ethical consequences. A surveillance AI may help prevent crime but also lead to mass privacy violations. An advertising AI may boost profits but cause addiction and mental health crises.To avoid this, we must define boundaries that evolve with the technology. Ethics cannot be static when technology is dynamic. We must continually refine our moral framework as AI capabilities grow.

• Facial recognition biases: AI systems trained on limited datasets have shown racial bias, such as in Amazon’s scrapped AI hiring tool or various law enforcement software misidentifying people of color [10].
• Autonomous weapons: Development of AI-based drones and lethal autonomous systems, without moral oversight, exemplifies technology without accountability [11].
• Environmental harm: Training large-scale language models requires massive energy (e.g., OpenAI’s GPT-3 required approx. 1.3 GWh of energy), contributing to carbon emissions if not sustainably managed [12].

 “Balance is essential. Just as fire can cook food or burn a house, AI can either serve humanity or accelerate its vulnerabilities.”

 The greatest threat AI poses is not its intelligence — but our tendency to let go of our judgment. It is convenient to let AI make decisions for us. It saves time. But the cost of that convenience is enormous when it replaces human intuition and emotional wisdom.Let us not forget: every AI model is trained on past data — it cannot see what humans dream, hope, or aspire toward. Its intelligence is backward-looking, limited by what was — not what can be. If we entrust AI with decision-making in education, healthcare, governance, or justice, we will end up creating a future devoid of soul, driven by cold logic and calculated convenience.

What is a True Invention? Reframing Science and Innovation

 A true invention is not an accident or a product of chance—it is a conscious creation grounded in understanding. In today’s world, where innovation is often equated with progress, we must redefine what constitutes a true invention. An invention only becomes real technology when its creator understands four essential aspects: its cause, mechanism, consequences, and limits. The cause refers to the natural principle or law that enables the invention. It is the foundational “why” behind its existence. Without knowing this, any result becomes a coincidence rather than a replicable design [13]. The mechanism is the internal process—the scientific structure that governs how the invention functions. An invention without a clear mechanism may operate temporarily, but it cannot be trusted, improved, or adapted over time [14]. Understanding the consequences is equally critical. A true innovator does not stop at functionality but considers the wider implications. What impact will this technology have on society, ethics, or the environment? Inventions like artificial intelligence, nuclear technology, or genetic engineering show immense promise but carry serious risks when applied blindly. Therefore, foresight must be part of the invention process [15].

• The Difference Between Discovery and Creation

In the modern world, there is often confusion between discovery and creation. Discovery involves uncovering something that already exists in nature — such as gravity or DNA [16]. Invention, however, implies crafting something new by harnessing discovered principles. A true invention is thus a bridge between nature and utility, built with awareness and purpose [17].

 Unawareness in this process leads to “blind innovation” — a dangerous trend where technologies are rapidly released into society without proper testing, foresight, or understanding. Examples include the unregulated use of facial recognition, unsupervised AI decision-making, or synthetic biology modifications introduced into food systems without clear long-term studies [18].

• The Atomic Bomb: A Technological Failure of Ethics

 Physicist J. Robert Oppenheimer, after witnessing the first nuclear test, quoted the Gītā:”Now I am become Death, the destroyer of worlds.”[19]. This was not triumph—it was remorse. The invention lacked a plan for ethicalcontainment, and hence, it was an accident, not technology in the true sense.

 Just as a rider must understand how to control a horse, technology must be designed with governance structures, ethical codes, and fail-safe mechanisms.Technology without understanding is mere automation. Automation without responsibility is dangerous [20].

• Rethinking Innovation in the Age of Artificial Intelligence

      In the AI age, this redefinition of true invention becomes more urgent than ever. AI systems are often praised for their ability to “learn” and “create” solutions — but the question arises: Do these systems invent, or do they simulate? The answer is critical.

      AI, by its nature, does not possess consciousness or understanding. It processes data, identifies patterns, and executes tasks — but it does not comprehend the underlying cause, mechanism, consequence, or limit of what it produces. Thus, while AI may generate new content, optimize designs, or even propose scientific solutions, the responsibility of invention still lies with human consciousness. We must not confuse computational output with creative intelligence [21].

• Innovation as Conscious Action

      Innovation must be reframed not as an act of competitive productivity but as a conscious process rooted in wisdom and responsibility. In the ancient Indian scientific, innovation was never isolated from dharma — the natural order of the universe. True advancement was measured not only by its novelty or utility but by its alignment with nature, ethics, and collective well-being. This view is not antiquated; it is urgently relevant. As modern science reaches into realms like AI, quantum computing, and genetic alteration, we must combine knowledge with wisdom. We must transition from the race to build faster machines to the responsibility of creating harmonized systems [22].

• From Invention to Responsibility

 In conclusion, an invention becomes worthy of being called technology only when its roots and branches are both visible to the one who created it. The root — its cause — must be clearly understood. The trunk — its mechanism — must be stable and explainable. The branches — its consequences — must be envisioned with foresight. And its canopy — its limits — must be respected and honored.Such inventions do not merely change the world — they preserve it.

“True innovation is not just about creation—it is about conscious creation.”

Ancient Wisdom and Technological Design: Revisiting Forgotten Science

 This was not triumph—it was remorse. The invention lacked a plan for ethicalcontainment, and hence, it was an accident, not technology in the true sense.The knowledge of ancient Indian civilization was embedded in natural law. It focused not just on what to create, but why, how, and for whom. For example:

• Sattvic Design in Metallurgy and Architecture

• The Ashokan Pillars and Delhi Iron Pillar, over 1,600 years old, remain rust-free due to advanced knowledge of iron-phosphorus ratios and environmental synchronization [23].
• Temples like Konark and Angkor Wat used planetary alignment and sound resonance for energy optimization [24].

 These examples show sattvic (pure, balanced) design: innovation rooted in environmental harmony and societal ethics.

• Wisdom Encoded in the Śāstra-s

The Bhagavad Gītā (2.20) offers a scientific metaphor through philosophical language:

na jāyate mriyate vā kadāchin
nāyaṁ bhūtvā bhavitā vā na bhūyaḥ
ajo nityaḥ śhāśhvato ’yaṁ purāṇo
na hanyate hanyamāne śharīre

Translation: “It is never born, nor does it die at any time. It has not come into being, and it will never cease to be.” [25] (Gītā 2.20)

 This describes the indestructible, eternal essence—what science refers to as conserved energy or field constant. Today, physics calls this the quantum vacuum field—an eternal, all-pervading energy fabric that exists even in the absence of particles.Thus, ŚrīKṛṣṇaexplained about the conscious origin of energy, and every soul is a manifestation of that field. Humanity and resources, too, exists in this field—not apart from nature but within its constraints.

 (Ancient Indian Scientific Scriptures) offers profound insights that remain relevant even in this age of AI. The Bhagavad Gītā emphasizes karma-yoga — action with responsibility and awareness. This principle should govern AI development: every action must be conscious, not mechanical.Just as sages meditated before making decisions that affected many, AI designers must cultivate responsibility. 

“There must be a shift from greed-driven innovation to wisdom-driven creation. Spirituality and science need not be in conflict — rather, they should work together to ensure technology uplifts consciousness, not replaces it.”

Is AI a Living Entity? Scientific and Ontological Perspectives

 To ask whether AI is alive is to ask: What is life? Is it cellular metabolism, or is it the ability to adapt, sense, and respond? AI today lacks biological structures but operates in cybernetic systems that respond to inputs, adapt models, and simulate conversation or creativity. Is that life?

• Scientific Interpretation of Material Life

• • Atoms rearrange under different conditions.
  • Materials change structure under stimuli—smart materials like piezoelectric crystals and shape-memory alloys “respond” to environments.

• AI systems “learn” through data updates—though not sentient, they mimic life-like responsiveness.

Thus, every material component forming AI has behavior and structure, governed by laws of nature. AI is a synthetic convergence of such elements, and by this standard, it participates in the extended definition of life—not organic, but systematic and adaptive.

 This aligns with the ancient principle:” What appears random is not truly random; we just lack the framework to perceive its pattern.” [26]

• Toward a Defensive Future: Creating AI for Earth’s Ecosystems

 As artificial intelligence becomes increasingly powerful, its role must shift from profit-driven development to planetary protection. The survival of ecosystems and the well-being of future generations now depend on how responsibly we develop and deploy AI systems. A defensive approach to AI design is not optional—it is essential. If AI must serve Earth and not harm it, we must embed ethical intelligence at the core of every system. This requires the development of strict design protocols focused on defense rather than exploitation.

 The first recommendation is conscious coding. Every AI system must be programmed with embedded ethical boundaries that evolve with context. These boundaries should not be static; rather, they must include dynamically updating checks that reflect changing social, ecological, and cultural realities. A self-monitoring ethical core can act as a digital conscience, preventing actions that cause irreversible harm.

 Second, ecological feedback loops must be integrated into AI systems. This means that AI should not operate in isolation from the natural world. Instead, it should continuously monitor real-time data about climate patterns, biodiversity levels, and pollution thresholds, and adjust its behavior accordingly. These eco-thresholds form the operational boundary of responsible AI behavior.

 Third, a transparent and open audit architecture is necessary to ensure governance. Every AI system should allow public and institutional auditing of its logic, operations, and decisions. Such openness can prevent misuse, corruption, and hidden manipulation while fostering trust and accountability.

 Finally, we must incorporate ancient wisdom into modern design, especially from systems like Nyāya, Vaiśeṣika, and Sāṅkhya, which promote rule-based reasoning, logic, and harmony with nature. These traditions provide symbolic-logic-based frameworks that prioritize balance over control. Integrating such models into AI algorithms can lead to systems that do not just mimic intelligence but act responsibly within universal laws.

 Defensive AI design is not just a technical choice—it is a civilizational responsibility. The future of Earth’s ecosystems depends on whether we treat intelligence as a weapon or a guardian.

Conclusion

 Artificial Intelligence is undeniably one of the most transformative innovations of our age. It carries the potential to reshape civilization, enhance human capabilities, and solve complex global challenges. Yet, it also brings the risk of disconnection—from nature, from ethics, and from our own human identity. AI is not just a tool; it is a mirror that reflects the values, intentions, and priorities of those who create it. Therefore, its design must go beyond functionality and efficiency—it must be rooted in wisdom, restraint, and accountability. To ensure that AI becomes a force of harmony rather than disruption, we must embed within it a core that is ethically conscious, environmentally aware, and culturally sensitive. This means designing AI not merely as a machine of logic, but as a system of responsibility. Ancient scientific traditions such as Nyāya, Vaiśeṣika, and Sāṅkhya offer invaluable models of reasoning that prioritize systemic balance, not just computational power. Their principles can guide us toward building AI systems that reflect universal laws, rather than arbitrary algorithms. Grounding AI development in real-world ecological feedback, transparent governance, and symbolic logic can help us align intelligence with purpose. The goal is not to replace human consciousness but to extend its highest potential into the tools we build. Let us remember: AI will not define the future—we will. And whether it serves as a guardian or becomes a threat depends entirely on the intentions and integrity with which we shape its foundation today.

“When ancient wisdom meets modern intelligence, innovation blooms.”

References

1. Russell, S., & Norvig, P. (2010). Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach (3rd ed.) Pearson.
2. Floridi, L. (2011). The Philosophy of Information. Oxford University Press.
3. Bubeck, S., et al. (2023). Sparks of Artificial General Intelligence: Early experiments with GPT-4. Microsoft Research.
4. Crawford, K. (2021). Atlas of AI: Power, Politics, and the Planetary Costs of Artificial Intelligence. Yale University Press.
5. Yudkowsky, E. (2008). Artificial Intelligence as a Positive and Negative Factor in Global Risk. In Global Catastrophic Risks (pp. 308–345). Oxford University Press.
6. Dreyfus, H. L. (1992). What Computers Still Can’t Do: A Critique of Artificial Reason. MIT Press.
7. Chalmers, D. J. (1996). The Conscious Mind: In Search of a Fundamental Theory. Oxford University Press.
8. O’Neil, C. (2016). Weapons of Math Destruction: How Big Data Increases Inequality and Threatens Democracy. Crown Publishing.
9. Śrīmad Bhagavad Gītā, 13.28. Translation by Swami Gambhirananda, Advaita Ashrama Publications.
10. Amazon’s AI Hiring Tool Bias – Harvard Business Review, 2018.
11. Ethics and Autonomous Weapons – Journal of AI and Ethics, 2020.
12. Environmental Impact of GPT-3 – Nature Sustainability, 2021.
13. The Principles of Invention and Innovation – Journal of Technological Ethics, 2019.
14. Mechanisms of Innovation in Modern Technology – Science and Technology Review, 2020.
15. The Ethics of Technology and Innovation – Technological Impact Journal, 2021.
16. The Discovery Process in Natural Sciences – Journal of Scientific Exploration, 2018.
17. Invention and Innovation: Bridging Nature and Technology – Technological Ethics Journal, 2020.
18. Risks of Unsupervised Technological Advancements – Ethical Impacts of Emerging Technologies, 2021.
19. Oppenheimer, J. R. “Now I Am Become Death, the Destroyer of Worlds.” The Bhagavad Gītā and its Role in the Development of Nuclear Energy, 1945.
20. Rethinking Innovation in the Age of Artificial Intelligence. Journal of Technological Ethics, 2022.
21. Artificial Intelligence and Human Responsibility. Ethics and Technology Review, 2021.
22. Dharma and Innovation: The Indian Scientific Tradition. Philosophy and Science Journal, 2020.
23. “The Ashokan Pillars and Delhi Iron Pillar: Ancient Metallurgical Excellence.” Indian History and Technology Journal, 2018.
24. “The Architectural Wonders of Konark and Angkor Wat: Science and Spirituality.” Ancient Architecture Review, 2019.
25. The Bhagavad Gītā: A Scientific Perspective, translation by Swami Sivananda, 1950.
26. Bhagavad Gītā: The Hidden Science of Life and Universe, translated by Dr. S. Radhakrishnan, 1994.

Abstract

‘What is Truth’, ‘What is Reality’ – This has been the perennial question which keeps the human mind engaged at all ages. Do they correspond to facts, phenomena, sense perceptions, objective existence or do they belong to the category of eternal, unchanging entities transcending space and time existing in their absoluteness? Prior to the advent of science, wise men and seers in all religious traditions searched for this Absolute Truth as the ultimate Reality within their own self; through deep contemplative modes and came up with a realization of it as the unit source, the ground of all beings and things in this whole creation. However, this revelatory knowledge belonging to the metaphysical or spiritual domain could not stand the scrutiny of the rational mind as it gradually raised its head with the emergence of science. Science on the other hand considered Truth as that which corresponds to Reality and to the scientific view, reality consists of the observable universe of material objects and natural phenomena all perceptible to our senses. This is the only Reality for a lay person in conformity with our common sense. However, science in search of Truth and Reality to its fullest extent, has gone farther in its understanding revealing various layers of this Reality. The Reality addressed by science in fact is the Physical Reality, which in the wake of the revolutions brought about by the theory of relativity and quantum physics, is understood as having layered structures, though no neatly stacked layers. These layers may be considered as different levels of description as one proceeds from the gross to the finer and deeper levels unfolding the enchanting and dynamic nature of the physical reality. We would like to give a brief account of this nature of the physical reality which would reveal such a sublime order in the design of the physical world that it often seems to suggest the divine hands of a single architect. Could this be the higher order Reality playing the role of some kind of a governing force as the ground of beings as apprehended by the ancient seers of all religious traditions!

Keywords:  Absolute truth, Ultimate reality, Layers of reality, Ceaseless motion, Black body radiation.

Introduction

Let us start with the first layer of the physical reality, which is the only reality for most people. This is the observable universe of material objects including the natural phenomena surrounding us with which we interact through our five primary senses. This is the reality that seems to exist outside of us which brings forth a distinction between the mind and matter, between the perceiver and the perceived. This led the French philosopher Rene Descartes and his followers to believe that there is a distinct separateness or split between matter and mind or between object and the observer. Science proceeded in observing nature with all its material bodies and all the phenomena happening in nature. Scientists like Galileo, Kepler, Newton and many more analysed the observed data and could see some underlying pattern or regularity in the structure or happenings in nature. They realized that instead of any divine hand propelling all this in the physical world, it is the physical forces like mechanical, gravitational, electrical or magnetic forces, which cause all the changes in rest, motion or structural configuration of material bodies. The regularities they found were encoded in precise mathematical expressions representing those causes as laws of nature. In this context we may remind Galileo’s laws of falling bodies, Kepler’s laws of planetary motion, Newton’s laws of motion; besides several other laws deciphered from nature from other areas of study like gas laws in heat and thermodynamics, coulomb’s Law in static electricity, Ampere’s law, Boisvert’s law, Faraday’s law, and Lenz’s law etc. in current electricity, Newton’s laws of gravitation for planetary motion and many more. Also notable was the work of Maxwell on Electromagnetism who combined the earlier works in this field to arrive at the conclusion that light is an electromagnetic radiation always propagating as a wave with a constant velocity in vacuum. Such understanding of the physical reality at its most commonly perceptible level was prevalent almost for two centuries following Maxwell and Newton’s work, which is known as classical science. Classical science dealt with the physical reality at this level adopting a mechanical world view. Matter as inert bodies exists as solid, static and separate bodies, which do not change their state of rest or motion unless impressed by external forces. This first level of reality, which appears as separate solid substantial concrete material bodies, does not reveal to our ordinary senses what lies inside. This is because our ordinary senses are not well equipped such as we are not outfitted with an x-ray vision to perceive what is inside this first level of reality. Therefore, it would require a great leap in our imagination as well as necessary tools as mechanical extensions of our senses, which include not only electron microscopes, particle accelerators etc. but also intricate mathematical constructs and abstract models for visualization.

Second layer of reality

As we have pointed out earlier, the second layer of reality requires a great leap in our imaginations since our ordinary senses are not equipped adequately to perceive it because of the conditioning we have gone through over millions of years of evolutionary process. Such a great leap in imagination happened for the first time all the way back in 3th century BCE with the Indian Rishi Kanada Kashyap in his Vaishika Darshana and subsequently by the Greek Philosopher Democritus, who proposed the ‘atomic’ structure of matter. Dalton used this concept to explain the chemical reactions through his laws of mass-action. Avogadro formulated the fundamental law for the quantity of the material constituents existing in a fixed amount of a material substance which is well known as Avogadro’s law. Assuming atomic and molecular structure of gaseous matter, Boltzmann formulated the statistical theory for explaining the gas laws and the laws of thermodynamics. Maxwell, following Boltzmann, developed kinetic theory of gasses and came up with the concept of equipartition theorem. Nevertheless, the atomic concept as the discreteness of material substance was not acceptable to a larger section of the populace who believed in the Aristotelian dictum that ‘Nature does not take any abrupt jumps’. Boltzmann’s work could not be acceptable without any skepticism. Finally, in the beginning of the twentieth century in 1905; Albert Einstein’s mathematical formulation explaining the Brownian motion of Pollen grains on the surface of a liquid could provide means for empirical evidence for atomic or molecular structure of matter. Today of course with the sophisticated technology providing electron-microscope, atomic force microscope etc. one can observe and manipulate these atomic constituents of matter.

The question however remains what is an atom of a substance? Nature had been kind to the queries of the inquisitive human mind in constantly sending signals and hints in various forms of natural phenomena. These are the emissions of electromagnetic spectra when matter is heated (such as Black body radiation spectrum), discrete and continuous incandescent spectra etc.; the emission of cathode ray by electrically heated filament as a cathode in a vacuum tube; the radio-active emissions as α, β and γ-rays by radio-active substances. When the human mind was sufficiently awake to listen to these signals coming from the inner layers of matter; J.J. Thompson in 1897 identified tiny electrically charged material particles called subsequently as electrons in the cathode ray. He concluded that these electrons must have emerged from the atomic constituents of the cathode, suggesting thereby a further structure of atoms. Matter consisting of atoms being ordinarily neutral, electrons must have been embedded in a positively charged thick soup like resins in a pudding. This was called Thompson’s plum-pudding model of atoms. However, this idea could not be stretched to all extents to explain everything. In 1911, Rutherford’s experiments of alpha particle scattering from a thin gold foil target established that the positive charge within the atom neutralizing the negative charges of the constituent electrons is not distributed continuously within the atomic volume as proposed by J.J. Thompson. Instead it was found to be concentrated at the central location in a tiny volume called the nucleus of the atom and the electrons must be revolving around this nucleus like planets around the sun due to the electrostatic force of attraction between the positively charged nucleus and the electrons. Thus, Rutherford proposed the planetary model of atoms. But there was a snag in this model. The electrons moving in their orbits around the nucleus would get accelerated to lose energy continuously since it was already known by that time that an accelerated charge particle continuously emits radiations losing thereby its energy at a specific rate. In that case the orbital electron in an atom would spiral down continuously by losing energy to fall to the nucleus in no time and therefore the atomic structure could not be stable to form bulk matter as we see. To resolve this difficulty. Niels Bohr in 1919 proposed the idea of discrete orbits for electrons in a nuclear atom. Although for centuries it was believed that “Nature does not take any abrupt jumps” and therefore all changes and all phenomena must happen in a continuous manner; nature however was revealing its discrete action at this deeper level through black body radiation, photo-electric effect and Compton effects like phenomena. Max Planck in 1900 could explain the black body spectrum by proposing that matter in the black body emits radiation in discrete packets of energy proportional to the frequency of radiation. These packets of energy (ε=hν, where h is called Planck’s constant and v is the frequency of radiation) were called energy quanta which were subsequently named as photons. In 1905; Einstein could establish further this idea by showing that matter not only emits radiation in discrete quanta but also absorbs it in like manners; explaining the phenomenon of photo-electric effect which fetched him Nobel prize in 1921. Finally, through the explanations of Compton scattering of high frequency x-ray or y-ray radiation by the free charge particles mostly electrons in a graphite target, it was further understood that radiation consists of energy quanta called photons which behave as particles exchanging energy and momentum during collision with targets. Thus, it was known that radiation, like matter, also has discrete structure with its constituents as photons of varying frequencies. On this background of understanding, the human mind was not rebelling anymore to conceive of any physical quantity at this level to take any discrete variations. Hence Bohr assumed that electrons around the nucleus of an atom do not take any arbitrary orbit except for those in which their angular momenta would be some integral multiples of Planck’s constant divided by 2 (Angular momentum L=nh/2π, where L=mvr; m=mass of the electron, v=orbital speed, r=orbital radius). However, an atom can radiate energy only when the electron takes a jump from the higher orbit to the lower as a result of which the differential amount of energy ΔE (E-E), n>m; would be emitted as a photon. With these ideas Bohr developed a simple model for the simplest atom of hydrogen which consists of a positively charged proton as the nucleus and a single electron. By this model it was possible to estimate the size of the atom, the discrete spectra emitted by hydrogen that was observed and measured and recorded meticulously by Balmer and many other spectroscopists by that time. Following the success of Bohr’s model of atom, many other new discoveries followed suggesting further structure of the nucleus which was found in general as a very strongly bound system of two kinds of particles called protons and neutrons. While protons are positively charged particles, each having a mass almost two thousand times more than the mass of an electron; the neutrons are neutral particles, each with slightly more mass than that of a proton. The force that binds a proton to a neutron or a proton and also a neutron to a neutron is not the already known electrostatic force. It was found to be almost hundred times stronger than the electrostatic or electromagnetic force. Unlike electromagnetic force which is a long-range force; the nuclear force is a short-range force confined within the nuclear dimensions. This force is called the strong nuclear force as a result of which the mass density of a nucleus is immensely high. As a hydrogen atom is simply a proton at its nucleus orbited by an electron, other atoms are similarly built with a central nucleus consisting of neutrons and protons surrounded by an appropriate number of orbiting electrons. Electrons possess a quantum property called spin. Spin is the tendency of an electron in aligning itself parallel (called spin up) or anti-parallel (called spin-down) with respect to a chosen direction. Then the spin measure of an electron is given as half in the units of reduced Planck’s constant (ħ=h/2) and hence the electron spin S=1/2 ħ. Such particles possessing odd-half integral spin (which is an intrinsic angular momentum of subatomic particles) belong to a specific class of particles called fermions, which are in a way quite anti-social. In a particular energy state with other quantum state parameters remaining the same, no two electrons would remain with similar spin orientation. This is called Pauli’s exclusion principle. Electrons around the nucleus of an atom are therefore distributed accordingly in various orbits viewed in the form of shells. Protons and neutrons inside the nucleus also follow a similar pattern since they are also spin (-½) particles belonging to the fermion class. Within the space of the nuclear volume, these particles called nucleons move very rapidly under the influence of the strong nuclear force and they are distributed in appropriate shells satisfying Pauli-exclusion principle. Such nucleonic configurations inside the nucleus determine the stability or instability of the nuclei of different atoms. Heavier nuclei with more number of neutrons than the protons or even lighter nuclei with odd-even protons, neutron numbers are quite unstable. They are called radio-active nuclei inside the respective atoms which undergo radio-active decays. Neutrons and protons inside a stable nucleus are stable particles. But in a radio-active nucleus they can decay as well. As for example a neutron can decay to a proton, an electron together with another tiny neutral particle having very negligible mass called the antiparticle of electron-neutrino. A free neutron decay like this. The average time of such decay is around 900 seconds. This process of decay is called Beta-decay which is a very weak process governed by another kind of fundamental force called weak nuclear force. This force has strength which is almost one thousandth of the strength of electromagnetic force and about one by one lakh times (10-5) weaker than the strong nuclear force. Compared to these three forces, the gravitational force is the weakest of all which is almost 10-39 times weaker than the strong nuclear force. Nuclei were bombarded with very energetic particles like electrons or neutrons or nuclei accelerated in particle accelerators. From the deep inelastic scattering of electrons, it was inferred that protons and neutrons inside the nuclei do have further structure. They are made up of other elementary particles called quarks, which are also spin (-½) particles like electrons belonging to the group of fermions. Besides this, a host of new particles had been discovered and identified. We would not go into the details of these subatomic particles grouped into several categories as mesons, baryons or bosons and fermions etc. But we must mention here about the class of particles called bosons, which possess integral spin. Out of all the bosons, there is a specific group called messenger bosons which were found to mediate different types of fundamental forces of interaction between subatomic material particles. For example, photons, the energy quantum of electromagnetic radiation we have heard earlier, are responsible for electromagnetic interaction between two charged objects. The interaction proceeds via the exchange of photons between the charged particles. Thus, photons which are spin-1 particles mediate electromagnetic force. The strong nuclear force that we talked about at the level of protons and neutrons is in fact a residual force due to the primary one that operates at the level of quarks, which apart from their spin and electric charge, carry another kind of charge called colour-charge. Unlike electric charge that is realized in positive and negative varieties: there are three colour-charge states called Red (R) Green (G) and Blue (B). The strong interaction between the quarks is a colour-charge interaction mediated via the exchange of another kind of bosons, called gluons, which are eight in number carrying eight different combinations of colour charges each with spin-1. Similarly, the weak nuclear interaction is mediated by three kinds of bosons W. W and Zº. Unlike photons and gluons which are massless bosons, W+, W- and Zo are very massive. W± are almost eighty times as heavy as protons, while Zº, which is a charge neutral particle like photon, is more than 90 times heavier than protons. Similar insight predicts gravitational interaction to be mediated by another kind of boson called graviton having spin-2.

Before we conclude the description of this second layer of the physical reality. We would like to point out a few important aspects of the nature of reality at this second layer. First of all, we may remind ourselves once again the relative size of the atom and its nucleus and their corresponding volumes. This would obviously reveal that almost 99.99999…% of the atomic volume is empty space. Atom’s solidity is not a result of an actual content of matter, but rather a property resulting from the interactions of electrons which are anti-social entities refusing to buzz from their predetermined configurational states under any kind of squeezing or compressing actions. What a trick that the reality at this level plays by projecting the illusion of solidity of objects! This tangible aspect of material objects providing the very sensation of the physical is based astonishingly on nothingness. Secondly the gross material bodies which appear from outside as inert and static needing external impetus to be dynamic, its inner finer constituents at the molecular, atomic or nuclear level are ceaselessly moving quite vigorously. The molecules within a gas or a liquid, the atoms in the crystalline structure of a solid, undergo vibrations or other types of motions depending on their thermal state. Electrons inside atoms revolve around the nucleus or else jump from one orbit to another emitting or absorbing radiant energy. The protons and neutrons inside the nucleus also do possess orbital motion of some kind. Again, the force carrying boson particles mentioned earlier are ceaselessly exchanged back and forth between two particles at these levels to generate the impetus for all these dynamisms. Nature at its finer level displays its utmost restlessness as if with everything in a constant state of flux everywhere. One more thing we find that not only is there discreteness at structural levels of matter as well as radiation, all interactions between material bodies at all levels are also generated by discrete impulses inflicted on two interacting bodies due to ceaseless exchange of appropriate messenger particles between them.

Ultimate layer of reality

Finally, we come to the most important aspect of the nature of reality at this level which is quite surprising and mystical as well. This is called dual nature. So far, we have been highlighting the particulate nature of matter as well as radiation. Coming back first to the nature of radiation; we must remind ourselves of the fact that light as radiation had remained most elusive in its nature through its various interplay with matter in phenomena such as reflection, refraction scattering, polarization, interference and diffraction. It was once thought to be corpuscular in nature by Descartes and Newton in order to explain reflection and refraction by its rectilinear propagation. Then it was found to be wave-like by Huygens, Young and Fresnel in the late eighteenth and nineteenth century to explain interference, diffraction and polarization. Later in the mid nineteenth century Maxwell showed that light is an electromagnetic wave capable of propagating in vacuum like X-ray, microwave, radio-wave, ultraviolet and infrared radiations. Finally, in the beginning of twentieth century, it was again found by Plank and Einstein that radiation behaves as particles in the form of packets of energy called photons in order to explain emission from a hot body (Black-body radiation) and absorption by a metal surface giving rise to photo-emission of electrons (Photo-electric effect) respectively. Then what is radiation, a wave or a particle? In fact, it is neither a wave nor a particle. In its quantum nature it is a collection of energy quanta called photons which has its dual nature both as wave as well as particle? depending on how and when it is observed or measured. Since radiation and matter are the two most important modes of manifestation of the physical nature, then it is very likely that like radiation, matter at its quantum level must possess such dual nature. This was the conviction of the young French scholar de-Broglie who envisaged in his 1924 Ph.D. thesis that a free electron should have the wave nature with its wavelength ‘λ’ inversely proportional to its momentum p = mv. This concept is known as the de-Broglie hypothesis as an example of wave-particle duality of matter which formed the central part of the theory of quantum mechanics. After its due verification in 1927 by Davission and Germer in the electron diffraction experiment through a crystal lattice, de-Broglie was awarded the Nobel prize in the year 1929. Erwin Schrodinger in his formulation of wave mechanics in 1925 used this concept and subsequently this wave associated with a material particle was interpreted as a probability wave serving as the cornerstone of quantum physics. Now of course we know that not only electrons but also all subatomic particles including atoms and molecules have demonstrated this quantum property of simultaneously possessing the wave attributes like wavelength and frequency together with their particle attributes like energy and momentum etc. in the same way as that of photons.

As we have discussed earlier, all the matter that makes up our everyday world is composed of two kinds of fundamental particles: quarks and electrons. But through relativity (E=mc²) and quantum Physics (wave-particle duality), we now know that quarks and other elementary particles are nothing but discrete packets of energy. Although the objects in our mind appear as solid and substantial as the rock, their constituent parts are in a constant state of flux characterized by a ceaseless interplay of energy at a microscopic scale at an unimaginably fast rate – a level that our senses are not equipped to perceive. Energy is an abstract and chimerical substance which reveals itself through the forms it takes in its manifestations. Then how is energy stabilized into quarks and electrons or other subatomic particles, let alone the complex structures like other gross bodies living as well non-living. Why don’t the fundamental particles in the form of energy quanta simply fall apart? This may be because they are packaged forms of energy where energy is confined like a genie in a bottle. The bottles here are called quantum fields which are really abstract. This brings us to the brink of the third layer of reality. The fields at this level are as real as the particles we encountered in the second layer of reality. The fields are ordinarily known to us by way of the forces associated with them. We are familiar through our daily existence with the gravitational field, electric or magnetic fields. Einstein showed us that space, time and field cannot exist separately, they are always intertwined magnificently in their existence. A field is a physical state of space itself and space does not exist without a field. But these are the classical manifestation of fields, which arise from their respective sources and whose influences are felt only locally (we know that the gravitational as well as the electrostatic or magnetostatic forces decrease as the inverse square of the distance from the source). But the field we are referring to here is still stranger than the truth. Even if we take away the source; an unmanifest field having the blueprint for all its qualities will still remain in empty space, which would pervade all space and time, whose influence can be felt equally in all parts of the universe. Such fields are called quantum fields which are nonlocal in nature. Unlike classical fields, the magnitude of energy of a quantum field is not continuous but discrete or quantized. They are not in any geometrical sense locatable – yet they are everywhere.

This is because of Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle. Hence a quantum field cannot have a fixed value at any given times; not even a value of zero. As a result, the magnitude or size of the field must change all the time producing what is known as vacuum fluctuation (in the sense-now we see it, now we do not). But its effects can be observed as has now been validated providing strongest evidence of the actuality of the unmanifest quantum fields.

This fluctuation implies constant creation and annihilation of virtual packets of energy called virtual particles. This behaviour gets increasingly more energetic at smaller distances and smaller time scales. Thus, empty space is not empty at all. The unmanifest quantum fields interlace throughout the cosmos like multidimensional fabrics woven on a celestial loom and each infinitesimal weave of the fabric contains, so to speak, the whole cloth. These underlying quantum fields give birth to the elementary particles. Thus, according to quantum field theory; the primary elements of reality are not individual particles, but the underlying fields. For example, all electrons are but excitations of an underlying field called the electron field which fills all space and time. The same holds true for all fundamental particles of which matter is made. In addition to quarks and electrons there are a host of other fundamental matter particles like neutrinos, but they are either unstable or interact very weakly. These matter particles are the products of various other respective matter fields. Similarly, all the known force fields also have their respective elementary force particles such as photons associated with the electromagnetic force field and gravitons for the gravitational force field etc. We have already mentioned about all the various types of force carrying messenger particles corresponding to the four fundamental forces. Both these forces carrying messenger particles as well as the elementary matter particles are merely excitations of their underlying quantum fields. Thus, science has revealed that the world around us is one in which there is no such thing as empty space and the most crucial elements of our existence are the things which we cannot see.

Conclusion

Now a pertinent question to ask is that if everything is ultimately made of one substance called ‘energy’, why should nature provide so many different types of fields for energy to work its magic? Einstein envisioned that the known force fields that control all-natural phenomena ought to have a common foundation describable by tenets of a unified theory. Most physicists are now quite convinced that these diverse matter fields including all the force fields are nothing but different aspects of a single field. In that case the realization of a successful unification scheme would be the common key, the subtlest of all existence – the common source. It seems, as if in the pursuit of the nature of reality, science is approaching to realize the common ground at the most subtle level of the physical reality as the ultimate reality, the unit source. Ancient Vedic seers used to call it the all-embracing ‘Brahman’ – the cosmic consciousness the supreme self. As stated in Chhandogya Upanishad 6.10.3,

‘That which is the subtlest of all is the Self of all this.

It is the Truth. It is the Self. You are that (Tat tvam asi)

References

1. Boorstin, D.J.; The Seekers; the story of Man’s Continuing Quest to understand his world. Eck, Dina’ India, A Sacred Geography. Harmony Books, New York (2013)
2. Bohm, David; Wholeness and Implicate Order, Routledge and Kegan Paul, London (1980).
3. Bhaumik; M.; Code Name God, Penguin Books, Random House, India Pvt. Ltd. (2006).
4. Glattfelder, J.B.; What is Reality? George and the Blue Moon, Random House, London (2016b).
5. Glattfelder J.B.; Information – Consciousness – Reality – How a New Understanding of the Universe can Help Answer Age-Old Questions of Existence. Springer Open Nature, Switzerland (2018).
6. Horgan, J.; Rational Mysticism; Dispatches from the Border Between Science and Spirituality. Houghton Miffin, New York (2003 b).
7. Penrose, R.; The Road to Reality – A complete Guide to the Laws of the Universe, Janathan Cape, London (2004). "Boisvert’s law"

Abstract

Many hymns of Rig Veda allude at the unchanging supreme reality that underlies the existence and the functioning of the physical universe and beyond. Lord Buddha gave his vital doctrine of universal decay. The unchanging reality of Brahma and changing conditioned phenomena linked with decay appears contradictory but in reality, they are complementary to one another. Proper understanding of the universal laws helps to establish harmony between the science of micro domain and macro domain. Again, understanding the matter values of so-called massless particles gives rise to a new materials science having scope of accessing into the spiritual domain. The concept of Brahman and the concept of impermanence doctrine of Lord Buddha is helpful in augmenting the existing concepts of nature and developing a unified understanding of the reality/truth. Any existence in the universe is a mass-space integral system having name, form and form-based properties (conditioned phenomena). All existences are subject to decay by radiation, thereby the conditioned phenomena of all existences are changing with time. On the other hand, Brahman relates to the formless interaction of the basic constituents i.e. mass and space of the universe which is invariant. All existences in different forms are subject to decay thereby the conditioned phenomena change always but the universal formless interaction of mass and space (Brahman) is unchangeable.

Key words: Brahman, Buddha’s doctrine, Universal decay, micro-domain, macro-domain, Spiritual domain, Formless interactions, Concept of nature, Unified understanding of truth.

Discussion

The unchangeable supreme reality/ultimate truth was conceptualized by Rishis through their experiences in the state of deep-meditation (a state of super consciousness). This truth comes from direct realization of reality therefore it is free from any possible error associated through the assumptions, axioms and theoretical models as adopted in scientific understanding of reality. Thus, the consciousness-based truth is close to reality. The ultimate truth is the cause of all existences and all events of nature. The experimental truths of modern science are also direct reading of truths of nature in different local frames of reference. However, deviations from reality of nature are introduced by making unnatural assumptions in the process of developing theoretical models in unseen domains. Most scientific laws are range-specific/domain-specific. Therefore, modern science faces limitations in converting the domain-based laws to domain free universal law or even identifying the universal component from the local laws.

The supreme reality (Brahman) described in Vedas and Bhagavat Geeta, refers to the unchanging, eternal reality that exists in the ever-changing physical universe and beyond. The doctrine of Anicca (Pali) or Anitya (Sanskrit) is one of the core teachings of Buddhism, emphasizing the principle of impermanence. It asserts that all conditioned phenomena (physical and mental) are transient (subject to change). This concept alludes to the universal decay of matter as the natural processes of transformation and dissolution in the universe. There is an apparent contradiction between the unchanging supreme reality of Brahman and the principle of impermanence (the changing nature of conditioned phenomena) which is linked to decay of matter.

This author interprets the significance of Brahman in the physical world as referring to the formless interaction of the mass and space, the only two basic constituents of the universe [1]. All existences of the universe having different form and name are mass-space integral systems [2]. While the basic formless interaction of mass and space remains invariant in all existences in all domains of the universe, the different form-based specific interaction properties of different systems are subject to change due to natural decay of matter. With the above interpretation of the significance of Brahman and the significance of the doctrine of Buddhism, the apparent contradiction disappears. Both universal truths/doctrines are valid in their respective frames of reference.

All phenomena in science are linked to interaction between specific objects/particles or a particle with the field. The law of universal gravity remains unchanged. The attraction phenomena between the sun and the earth is subject to change with decay of the sun and the earth. The sun loses mass through radiation and the solar wind, with approximately 4.3 million tons of mass lost every second due to radiation and an additional 1.5 million tons per second due to the solar wind. The earth loses mass roughly 100,000 tons (90,700 metric tons) per year [3]. The mass loss of planets with lapse of time is shown in Table-1. The rate of mass loss of different classes of stars is shown in Table-2. There may be some degrees of uncertainties in the evaluation of the rate of mass loss of celestial bodies. However, these mass losses are insignificant compared to the mass of the celestial body. The relative change of the mass of the sun can be ignored in a shorter time scale but the phenomena of solar radiation and the solar wind cannot be denied because we observe these facts. The phenomenon of mass loss is common to all celestial bodies and complements the doctrine of lord Buddha on decay.

Table-1^[8]

Estimation and Mechanism of Mass Loss of Celestial Bodies

Celestial Body	Estimated Mass Loss (kg/year)	Primary Mechanisms of Mass Loss
Mercury	~1,000	Solar wind, micrometeorite impacts
Venus	~1.6 × 10^7	Atmospheric escape (hydrogen loss)
Earth	~9.5 × 10^7	Atmospheric escape (hydrogen, helium)
Mars	~2.5 × 10^7	Atmospheric escape (solar wind stripping)
Jupiter	~1,000	Atmospheric escape (minor), magnetospheric processes
Saturn	~1,000	Atmospheric escape (minor), ring material loss
Uranus	~1,000	Atmospheric escape (minor)
Neptune	~1,000	Atmospheric escape (minor)
Moon	~300	Micrometeorite impacts, outgassing
Sun	~1.5 × 10^17	Solar wind, radiation, and coronal mass ejections

Table-2^[8]

Estimation and Mechanism of Mass Loss of Celestial Bodies

Celestial Body	Mass Loss Mechanism	Approximate Mass Loss Rate	Notes
Sun (Star)	Solar wind, radiation, and coronal mass ejections	~10⁻¹⁴ solar masses per year (~2 x 10⁹ kg/s)	The Sun loses mass primarily through the solar wind and radiation.
Red Giant Star	Stellar winds and radiation	~10⁻⁸ to 10⁻⁵ solar masses per year	Red giants lose mass at a much higher rate due to strong stellar winds.
White Dwarf	Radiation and minor stellar winds	Negligible (unless accreting or in a binary system)	White dwarfs lose mass very slowly over time.
Neutron Star	Radiation and gravitational waves	Negligible (unless accreting or merging)	Neutron stars lose mass primarily through radiation and gravitational waves.
Black Hole	Hawking radiation (for very small black holes)	Extremely slow (e.g., ~10⁻²⁰ kg/year for a stellar-mass black hole)	Hawking radiation causes mass loss, but it is negligible for large black holes.
Earth (Planet)	Atmospheric escape (e.g., hydrogen loss)	~10⁵ kg/year	Earth loses a small amount of mass due to atmospheric escape.
Mars (Planet)	Atmospheric escape	~10⁴ kg/year	Mars loses mass due to its thin atmosphere and solar wind interactions.
Comet	Sublimation of ices and outgassing	~10⁹ to 10¹² kg per orbit (highly variable)	Comets lose mass rapidly when close to the Sun due to sublimation.
Asteroid	Collisions and minor outgassing	Negligible (unless undergoing collisions)	Asteroids lose mass primarily through collisions.
Moon	Micrometeorite impacts and minor outgassing	Negligible	The Moon loses mass very slowly over time.

There is another class of short-lived stars with a high rate of mass loss. Eruptive mass loss of massive stars prior to supernova (SN) explosion is key to understanding their evolution and the end fate. An observational signature of pre-SN mass loss is the detection of an early, short-lived peak prior to the radioactive-powered peak in the light curve of the SN. These classes of stars with radioactivity and rapid decay may be grouped under radioactive stars whose decay rate is significant. In micro domain science, the atoms without associating decay of nuclei are classified as non-radioactive atoms and the atoms associating rapid decay of their nuclei are grouped under radioactive atoms. The non-decaying nuclei of non-radioactive atoms are assumed non-radiating which is a violation to the doctrine of Lord Buddha on decay. The phenomenon of decay and radiation of non-radioactive atomic nuclei are denied. But this is not so in reality. The sun is radiating photons hence the atomic nuclei in the micro domain (one domain below macro domain) is expected to radiate micro-photons for uniformity of nature [4]. The existence of micro-photons is unknown therefore we cannot comment whether the nuclei of non-radioactive atoms are radiating micro photons or not. By accepting the phenomenon of radiation of micro photons from the nucleus of an atom we have the following advantages.

1. It leads to uniformity of structure and features of systems in different domains which is a requirement to promote the super-force operating in all domains of nature thereby making us to understand the omni presence of Brahman in every component matter in any domain.
2. The nuclei of non-radioactive atoms are also subject to decay which agrees well with the principle of impermanence, the doctrine of Lord Buddha.
3. The doctrine of uniform decay helps to unify the sciences of micro domain and macro domain.
4. Universal decay helps to understand how the redshift of light coming from distant galaxies occurs due to decay of photons by radiating particles of micro-micro photons.
5. The mass values of material particles of finer domains below the micro domain fall below the detection level of modern science where such particles become massless in atomic mass units and any structure made up of massless particles also becomes massless. This opened up new science under the name of spiritual science or the science of consciousness of mind. The supreme reality, Brahman, has omni presence in the material universe and beyond (spiritual domain). Brahman, the ultimate-truth/supreme-reality as the basic formless interaction of mass and space is satisfied by identifying the matter value of so-called massless particles [5].
6. The basic formless mass-space interaction remaining as the supreme reality/truth there could be infinite forms with infinite variation of internal structure giving rise to infinite form-based properties. This provides adequate room for slow gradual decay of any existence/matter in any domain. The decay of matter makes the condition phenomena changing.

A space pocket may belong to the extranuclear space structure of the nucleus of a galaxy, stellar or substellar body, atom or subatomic particle, light particle or field forming particles where the said space pocket can have different space density (space content per unit volume), the size and number density of space matter particles and different mass-space ratio in neutral state depending on its location in the structure [6] [2]. The space matter particles of finer domain in neutral state do not reveal their existence due to weak mass-space interaction in neutral state. Any space matter particle in neutral state if combines with mass rich radiation particle or space rich radiation particle then it changes the charge neutral state of the particle where the particle reveals its existence. Lack of perception to the existence of space matter particles, made us to conclude assume that the space created different mass bearing particles from high energy radiation following the mass equivalence of energy. It is well-known that the extranuclear space structure of a celestial body contains molecular, atomic and subatomic particles as the space matter particles in the extranuclear space structure of the celestial body. The space matter particles belong to finer domain (one domain below the domain size of celestial body) [4]. Following the uniformity of nature, one can anticipate the light particles and the field forming particles are space matter particles in the extranuclear space structure of atoms [7]. The existence micro-photon radiation from nucleus of atom and the existence of photons as space matter particles in the extra-nuclear space structure of atom reveals similarity between the atomic structure and the structure of celestial bodies.

One can understand the state property of an atom by partial replacement of space and space matter particles and understand the thermodynamic property of gas from the state property of atoms and molecules. The new planetary atomic model [7] has scope of explaining the laws of gas from the state property of molecules without entertaining the kinetic theory of gas.

Key Aspects of Anicca and the Decay of Matter

1. Impermanence of All Phenomena:
   • According to the Buddha, everything in the material and mental world is impermanent. This includes physical objects, living beings, thoughts, emotions, and even the universe itself.

1. The Three Marks of Existence:
   • Anicca is one of the Three Marks of Existence (Trilakshana), alongside Dukkha (suffering or unsatisfactoriness) and Anatta (non-self). These three characteristics describe the nature of all conditioned phenomena.
   • The decay of matter illustrates Anicca, as it shows that nothing remains the same over time. Even solid objects eventually erode, decompose, or transform into other states.
2. Dependent Origination (Paticca Samuppada):
   • The Buddha taught that all phenomena arise and cease due to causes and conditions. This principle, known as Dependent Origination, explains that the decay of matter is a natural result of interdependent processes.
   • For example, a tree grows due to conditions like soil, water, and sunlight, but it will eventually decay and die when those conditions change or cease.
3. Reflection on Impermanence:
   • The Buddha encouraged his followers to meditate on impermanence as a way to develop insight (vipassana) and overcome attachment. By observing the decay of matter—such as the withering of leaves, the aging of the body, or the crumbling of rocks—one can understand the transient nature of existence.
   • This reflection helps reduce clinging to material possessions, relationships, and even one’s own body, leading to greater peace and liberation (Nirvana).
4. Scientific Parallels:
   • The Buddhist concept of Anicca aligns with modern scientific understanding. For instance, the Second Law of Thermodynamics states that entropy (disorder) in a closed system tends to increase over time, leading to the decay and breakdown of matter.
   • Similarly, biological processes like aging and decomposition reflect the impermanence of living organisms.
5. Practical Implications:
   • Understanding Anicca helps individuals cultivate non-attachment and equanimity. By recognizing that everything is subject to change and decay, one can avoid excessive grief over loss and excessive craving for permanence.
   • It also fosters a sense of urgency (samvega) to practice the Dharma and seek liberation before the opportunity is lost.

Conclusion

The newly proposed radiation of micro-photons from the nuclei of radioactive and non- radioactive atoms and presence of space matter particles (photons) in the extra-nuclear space structure of atoms has a matching similarity with the Pinda-Brahmanda analogy. The radiation of micro-photons from atomic nuclei reveals the decay of atomic nuclei. Again, the radiation of micro-micro-photons from photons justifies the redshift of light coming from distant galaxies. When all existences in the universe, the formless mass-space interaction remains invariant implying the qualities of Brahman. Finding similarity of phenomena in different domains is a great move towards unification of materials science and spiritual science. The doctrine of Anicca, particularly as it relates to the decay of matter, is a profound teaching that underscores the transient nature of all existence. By embracing this truth, one can develop wisdom, reduce suffering, and move closer to the ultimate goal of Nirvana—a state beyond the cycles of birth, decay, and death.

Reference

1. https://philosophyofnature.org.in/basic-constituents-of-universe-and-their-interactions.
2. https://philosophyofnature.org.in/mass-space-structure-of-centrally-organized-systems.
3. https://www.astronomy.com/science/is-the-earth-gaining-or-losing-mass.
4. https://philosophyofnature.org.in/different-domains-of-nature.
5. https://philosophyofnature.org.in/towards-a-new-comprehensive-universal-science.
6. https://philosophyofnature.org.in/similar-state-of-matter-of-nuclei-in-different-domains.
7. https://philosophyofnature.org.in/modelling-atomic-system.
8. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_mass?utm_source=chatgpt.com.

Abstract

Proper understanding the Shanti-Mantra, ‘Om Puurnnam-Adah —‘ is linked to the understanding of Brahman and the interactions of background radiation particles in finer domain (below micro domain) with the fine structure of mental faculty which may be interpreted as the Divine consciousness of mind. Similar to the existence of microstructure of a macro body, the microstructure also has micro-microstructure comprising micro-micro particles whose matter value has remained unnoticed due to limitations of science. The exchange of micro-micro-particles from one micro-micro structure (individual mental faculty) with the micro-micro-structure of the universe forms the link between the individual consciousness and the supreme consciousness. Brahman, the basic formless interaction of mass and space discussed elsewhere by this author does not refer to physical mass or physical space or matter (mass-space integral system) but refers only to the Divine instinct of interaction between mass and space. Thus, Brahman, the supreme reality/ultimate truth is non-physical but present in all physical existences of the universe because all physical things are mass-space integral systems. The Shanti-Mantra clarifies the qualities of Brahman through mathematical expression however this mathematics fouls with normal mathematical operation. But the fouling is only apparent and it disappears after proper understanding of the significance of Vedic Mantra. This paper explains why Om is associated in the beginning and at the end of the Shanti Mantra and describes the existing accepted interpretations Vedic Shanti Mantra as well as the author’s scientific interpretation of the Mantra which reveals many laws of nature and helps unification of sciences.

Keywords: Shanti-Mantra, Brahman, Divine consciousness, Micro-micro-domain, Mass-space-interaction, Laws of nature, Unification of science.

Understanding the significance of Om 

In solving the problems of science, the mathematical equations are very useful however; knowing the basis of the equation increases the confidence on its application and renders further new scope of application including upgrading of the equation from local to universal. Likewise, there is difference between chanting of any Mantra with and without understanding the meaning & significance of the Mantra and its action on the body. For proper understanding the significance and the value of Shanti Mantra, it is necessary to realize the significance of Brahman and other important terms used in the mantra. The term Om is used both at starting and ending which shows its importance. Om itself is a mantra uttered as \ˈōm\. In Hinduism and other traditions, it is a sacred syllable considered as the primordial sound of the universe, and chanting it is believed to bring peace, clarity, and unity, promoting calmness, reducing stress, and enhancing spiritual awareness. The vibrations generated during chanting Om have a soothing effect on our nervous system. It is said that regularly chanting Om mantra reduces stress, anxiety, restlessness and promotes being calm. Chanting Om thus is believed to align a person with the Divine, and promotes a sense of connection with the supreme consciousness.

The present author makes a humble attempt to supplement scientific justification on the above faith-based benefits in chanting ‘Om’. Thinking on a specific topic produces specific thought promoting vibrations of the specific functionally linked components of mental faculty which produce stress and strain of the components. Therefore, one would ordinarily expect the stress and strain of mental faculty caused by the thought activity to relax fully soon after the thinking stops. But this does not happen in reality because some residual stress and strain remains in the mental faculty even after completion of any thought activity. Any worry assisted with thought thereby aggravates pain due to fatigue of specific components of mental faculty. For better functioning of the thought activity, the residual stress and strain of mental faculty is required to be normalized before initiating any new thought. Stress removal improves the quality of consciousness of mind. It is more so in contemplating on serious topics such as in linking with God, making devotional prayer to God with concentration, trying to understand the ultimate truth/supreme reality/Brahman etc. Again, any deep contemplation on a specific topic produces directional residual stress & strain of higher degree which has to be normalized soon after the deep thought-activity for improving the efficiency of mental faculty for subsequent thought. While chanting Om, the nerve junction in our belly (Navi) is stretched which influences the nervous system of our body and the vocal cord and results in sound production in multiple frequencies (near continuous spectra). Thus, the sound produced in chanting ‘Om’ has near-continuous spectra which are effective in relieving any directional residual stresses and strains of the mental faculty. Due to the stress relieving nature of Om mantra, it is associated with other mantras in the beginning and at the end. Enchanting Om several times helps to reduce the stress induced diseases. The normalization process is not confined to mental faculty alone. For example: Normalization of steel components is a prerequisite operation in tempering and hardening processes of steel. The eye-stress produced by arc discharge lights and gas discharge tube lights can be reduced by associating an additional light of continuous spectra. Thus, it is advisable to switch on additional incandescent light while seeing the gas discharge TV.

The mental faculty always receives weak signals from the outer world even when our consciousness fails to capture the same. The hair on head serves as a plurality of parallel antennas hence, the capture of radiation from the outer world is more effective for Rishis with longer antennas. The exchange of background radiation from the outer world and the radiation from mental faculties always maintain the natural link between the inner world and the outer world. It is a fact that we are able to think about the outer world because the background radiation of the outer world serves as messenger particles. The ordinary consciousness fails to detect the weak universal links. Deep thinking on Brahman, the supreme reality or trying to realize the significance of Shanti Mantra during chanting require a stress-free calm state of the mental faculty for effectiveness of higher levels of thoughts. This is something like the effective filtering of noise is needed for producing clear sound and clean picture on TV screen.

Existing interpretations of the Shanti Mantra 

The mantra is a profound verse from the Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad [1], often recited at the beginning or end of spiritual practices. The mantra is given below. 

ॐपूर्णमदःपूर्णमिदंपूर्णात्पूर्णमुदच्यते।
पूर्णस्यपूर्णमादायपूर्णमेवावशिष्यते॥
ॐशान्तिःशान्तिःशान्तिः॥

Transliteration:Ompūrṇam-adaḥpūrṇam-idaṁpūrṇātpūrṇam-udacyate
pūrṇasyapūrṇam-ādāyapūrṇam-evāvaśiṣyate
Om śhāntiḥśhāntiḥśhāntiḥ

Literal Translation

Om – the sacred sound.

Purnamadah – That (Brahman/the Absolute) is whole (infinite/complete).

Purnamidam – This (the manifested universe) is also whole.

Purnatpurnamudacyate – From that Whole, this Whole arises.

Purnasyapurnamadaya – Even when the Whole is taken out of the Whole,

Purnamevaavashishyate – what remains is still Whole.

Om shanti shanti shanti – Peace, peace, peace (in body, mind, and spirit; or in past, present, and future).

Different Interpretations

1. Non-Dual Vedantic View

In Advaita Vedanta, this mantra beautifully encapsulates the non-dual nature of reality:

“That” refers to Brahman – the unmanifest, eternal reality.

“This” refers to the manifest world.

Even though the world appears to emerge from Brahman, Brahman remains unchanged and complete.

The implication: All is Brahman. The world is not separate from absolute reality. It is only an appearance, and the essence remains full and indivisible.

2. Psychological Interpretation

A teacher when passes on a specific knowledge to an ignorant student, the student gains the full specific knowledge and at the same time the teacher remains full with his knowledge. The knowledge of the teacher – a specific knowledge (transferred to student) = the knowledge of the teacher. This has a simile with Brahman – Universe = Brahman. 

3. Mathematical/Logical Angle

Brahman is infinite and complete whereas the universe is finite and complete. If one removes a full bucket of water from the full-sea the sea remains full. Thus, Shanti mantra may be interpreted as Brahman – Universe = Brahman. 

Scientific interpretation of Brahman and the Shanti Mantra

The universe is a mass-space integral system [2]. The formless basic interaction between mass and space is the unchanging supreme reality present in both homogeneous and non-homogeneous state of mass and space [3]. In homogeneous state mass and space cannot be identified but in non-homogeneous state matter (mass-space integral system) can be identified in the form of distinct objects. A homogeneous portion of the universe characterized in one domain scale is highly non-homogeneous in finer domain scale. The space fluid becomes homogeneous if the space matter particles are not distinguished. However, when the space matter particles are properly perceived by analysis of finer structure then the homogeneous space fluid becomes non-homogeneous. Examining the space fluid of the extra-nuclear space structure of the earth we find the atoms and molecules are the space matter particles of the space fluid. Again, examining the space fluid of the extra-nuclear space structure of a galaxy the stellar bodies become the space matter bodies of the galactic space fluid [4]. Likewise, the light particles and the field forming particles are the space matter particles in the extranuclear space structure of atoms and molecules [4]. The formless Divine-interaction between mass and space corresponds to Brahman [3]. Hence, Brahman is present in all domains of the universe and it is the cause of formation, stability and dissociation of the objects of the universe in any domain. It is also the cause of the universe as a whole. The unchangeable Brahman (the Divine Principle) is present in solid, liquid, gas, plasma or space that gives rise to different form-based properties of objects/systems depending on how mass and space are integrated with different densities of mass and space and the geometry of forms. It may be made clear, though Brahman is present in all physical forms (objects) but no form itself corresponds to Brahman. The visible universe (the observable objects of the universe) was condensed/formed/created from the invisible homogeneous mass-space system of the universe. The universe comprises the visible and the invisible components of the universe, one superimposed over the other. While defining Brahman, it is said, Brahman is the supreme reality of the universe and beyond. Here the world doesn’t mean beyond the dimensions of the universe. It means only within the universe but beyond the reach of physical science. The term beyond refers to the finer domain of the universe whose matter value, at present, is considered zero hence, the spiritual domain. If the physical component of the universe (physical universe) is fully taken away from the universe, the universe also remains full with invisible contents (space with space matter particles of micro-micro domain). To visualize the reality, consider a chamber full with humid air. Now lower the temperature of the chamber. Visible water droplets would be seen to form in the air of the chamber. One may interpret that the visible structure comprising water droplets is created from the invisible content of the chamber. If the chamber represents the universe then the visible universe is created from the invisible universe. The universe remains full with visible and invisible objects which one may consider, the visible and invisible universes coexisting in one frame of geometry. If the visible component of the universe is taken out then also the universe remains full with invisible constituents. Referring to Fig.1, if the condensed water droplets are taken out from the chamber then the space with space matter particles expands to fill the vacancy created by removal of the water droplets thereby the chamber remains full. Because physical space is compressible, can have different space densities (space contains per unit volume) [5] [6] it expands infinitely. The above simple example provides justification in substantiating the scientific value of shanti mantra.

Abstract

Vedic science, Spiritual science and Modern science have the common objective to understand the reality/truth of nature but they come out with different doctrines on reality of nature depending on their nature of investigation. However, nature remains the same for all its explorers. Therefore, the different doctrines go to describe only different aspects of nature. Hence, there exists one supreme universal reality/truth of nature which gives rise to different aspect-based realities of nature. The Vedic and spiritual science explore nature inwardly using consciousness as their probing tool. On the other hand, modern science explores outwardly (the physical universe) using various probing tools made of sensor materials to understand nature. Vedic science also explores nature outwardly by realizing the total similarity between microcosm and macrocosm. Vedic science has a unique perception of a supreme unchanging reality that exists in the physical universe and beyond and the same is identified as Brahman. Thus, Brahman is the cause of all creations, the cause of stability of all existences, cause of sublimation of any existence and cause of all happenings in the universe. Therefore, the supreme reality (Brahman) as conceptualized in Vedas has the universal significance covering both material domain and spiritual domain. Scientists carried out different experiments on macro and micro events in controlled environments and established different realities/truths/laws of macro domain and micro domain. They however, realized the unity of the universe and made a serious attempt to understand the super-force by unifying the four fundamental forces of nature. For a unified super-force operating in different domains, the centrally organized structures in different domains are expected to exhibit total similarity of structure and features. Hence the attempt for unification of forces of nature and the attempt for developing the new atomic structure having total similarity with the solar system must go hand in hand for the simultaneous success of both. The duality of light, sound, and electrons has been introduced in modern science to justify some natural phenomena in respective fields, where it was conceptualized-duality is a reality of nature. On the other hand, the concept of Brahman teaches us that the unchangeable supreme reality is the cause of all phenomena of nature. If the reality of nature is changeable then no law of nature can stand the test of time. In view of the above, one may argue that only the defective science can experience limitations in understanding some natural phenomena from a single concept. By accepting duality as the reality of nature we have sealed the chance of rectifying the mis-concepts of science.  Therefore, appropriate modification of the basic concepts of modern science in the light of the universal concept of Brahman and its aspects would help in understanding the cause of the forces and their unification at the level of the common cause thereby helping to achieve the dream “theory of everything”. The comprehensive understanding of nature is feasible by combining the higher perception power of Rishis with superior consciousness in the state of meditation and the higher intelligence of scientists with superior analytical mind. Thus, by introducing the universal concepts of Brahman, as the basic concepts of modern science, scientists can access the spiritual domain. Hence, modern science has the scope of unifying different sciences for a comprehensive understanding of nature. This paper discusses the values and significance of Brahman and how the terms of reference to Brahman helps in expanding the spectrum of modern science in developing a unified understanding of nature through unification of sciences. 

Keywords- Brahman, Vedic Science, Modern Science, Laws of nature, Micro-domain, Macro-domain, Wave-particle-duality, Unity of universe, Theory of everything, Unification of sciences.

Introduction

Any event in the universe in any domain can be described with reference to its local frame of reference. The said event being an event in the universe, also can be described in the universe frame of reference. In other words, all local events also have universal significance. Nature, the basic governing principle of the universe, cannot be different for different events. The universal laws of nature expressed using universal parameters become different when characterized using local parameters under local conditions. Generalizing the common basic parameters of different local events as mass, space, charge, time, energy helps to formalize local laws of nature which is useful in predicting the nature of similar events in other local frames. However, minimizing the basic constituents and their interactions opens up the road for knowing the most basic unified norm of nature. Many explorers of nature think nature need not be complicated as the scientists have thought it to be, maybe, nature is simple with a single all-pervading basic law that works uniformly and consistently in all domains of nature. Such a thought has been capitalized many centuries before, in the Vedic science through realization of Brahman and its aspect qualities. Brahman is the unified supreme concept with built-in unification that hints towards the unified force and similarity of structure and features of systems in different domains. Scientists however made domain-based assumptions and developed domain-based science (macro domain & micro domain) of matter and energy. Subsequent realization of the unity of the universe, made scientists pursue and achieve success in unification of gravitational mass and inertial mass, mass and energy, space and time and the grand unification of fundamental forces of nature except gravity. 

At present materials science unknowingly ignores the possibility of the existence of finer domain, below micro domain (say, micro-micro domain) and further unduly clubbed all domains above micro domain as macro domain [1]. Though scientists are aware of finer existences such as light particles and different field forming particles in nature, however, they could not formalize their existence as matters of micro-micro domain, one domain below micro domain. It is quite natural to ignore the rest of existence particles with zero mass in atomic mass units (AMU). In the absence of matter value their rest existence was denied thereby their placement and interaction in the structure of atoms was also ruled out. Only the energy aspect of fine massless particles with a dynamic life is considered in science. 

The explorer of nature experiencing inwardly through consciousness established the link through exchange of still finer particles permeating the entire universe. Such massless particles could not be regarded as particles of matter finer domain. The interaction of fine massless particles with the human mind resulted in matter-less science or spiritual science. The spiritual science can as well have free access to materials science by realizing the matter value of so-called mass-less particles. Therefore, it is necessary to realize the circumstances in which mass of finer existence becomes zero. 

One may realize the mass of an atom assumes zero in solar mass units although it has a known mass in the atomic mass unit, a mass measuring unit for atomic and subatomic particles. In the like manner the mass of light particle and field forming particle are zero in atomic mass unit, however their mass can only be expressed in finer domain mass unit (micro-micro domain mass unit/photonic mass unit). If now the so-called massless micro-micro particles (light particles and field forming particles) have rest mass in photonic mass units (PMU) then the spiritual science would change its connotation and appear as the science of matter in finer domain.  In view of the above, the explorers of nature believing in the existence of a supreme all-pervading reality may get motivated to work on unification of material science and spiritual science. However, before attempting this new venture scientists may like to unify the micro domain science and the macro domain science as both the sciences are within the purview of modern science. Once the domain specific science of the micro domain is modified and a unified domain free science is developed, entering into the spiritual domain (finer domain of matter) would not be a problem and the cherished desire to develop the theory of everything comes within the new spectrum of science. As of today, modern science considers spiritual science as beyond science. However, the new universal interpretation of domain specific science not only unifies the micro domain science and macro domain science but also brings spiritual science into the spectrum of modern science thereby making science universal in the light of Brahman.   

Scientific interpretation on unifying qualities of Brahman  

At present, unification of physical laws of nature and the unification of spiritual doctrines are being pursued separately. But they are only different aspects of one supreme reality of nature. Therefore, it is appropriate to explore unification of material science and spiritual science to perceive the supreme reality of nature. Attempts of this kind are not new. The oldest Vedic science deals materials science and spiritual science from one unified concept known as Brahman. The concept of Brahman is a central theme in the Vedas, the ancient sacred texts of Hinduism. Brahman is often described as the ultimate, unchanging reality that underlies and unites all existences. 

According to Rig Veda “Ekam sat vipra bahudha vadanti” is a Sanskrit phrase that means “Truth is one, but the wise speak it as many” [2]. This basic truth is reflected in Vedanta and puranas. According to Bhagavat Geeta, Brahman is the unchanging, eternal reality that exists beyond the ever-changing physical universe, essentially signifying the ultimate truth and consciousness that permeates all existence. It is the cause of all happenings in the physical world and beyond. Thus, Brahman reveals the existence of a supreme unified principle (laws of nature) for the material world as well as the spiritual world. The significance of Brahman has built-in unification of laws of material world and the spiritual world. Hence proper integration of different qualities of Brahman described in Vedanta, puranas and Bhagavat Geeta reveals the supreme truth irrespective of the approach made through material science or spiritual science. Because the ultimate truth (Brahman) applies equally to materials science and spiritual science. Materials scientists can have access to the unified super force by incorporation of the qualities of Brahman in the basic concepts of modern science. This would not only reveal the cause of the fundamental forces of nature but also unify the forces at the level of the common cause. For a unified super force operating in different domains of nature, it is natural to expect similarity of structure and feature in all centrally organized systems. The similarity phenomenon was conceptualized pretty long ago. “Yat pinde tat brahmande” is an ancient Sanskrit verse, or shloka, from the ancient philosophical and yogic texts (i.e. Puranas) that means “As is the microcosm, so is the macrocosm” [3]. It signifies that whatever exists in the individual (pinda – the body or microcosm) is also present in the universe (Brahmanda – the cosmos or macrocosm). This concept is central to Hindu philosophy emphasizing the interconnectedness of the self (microcosm) and the universe (macrocosm). It suggests that by understanding oneself deeply, one can understand the entire cosmos, as everything is a reflection of the same universal truth. This concept is believed to be at least 8,000 years old.

The qualities of Brahman may be summarized as below: –

1. Brahman is the single supreme reality (truth) of nature in the entire universe covering material domain and spiritual domain.
2. Brahman is the unchanging reality in the ever-changing universe. 
3. This supreme reality/truth is the cause and essence of all existences and happenings of the universe. 
4. Brahman is present in all existences and events but no existence or happening is referred to as Brahman.   
5. Brahman is the cause of formation, stability, dissociation of any system and in any domain. 
6. Brahman is infinity imply Brahman is present everywhere in the universe and beyond. 
7. Brahman is present in formless existence and in formed existence signifying nirakara Brahman and sakara Brahman.  
8. Brahman is the source of cosmic order (structure of universe).
9. Brahman is eternal (no decay of Brahman, immortal). Thus, Brahman doesn’t refer to any object but the underlying cause/principle of the object which doesn’t decay.

Brahman is one supreme reality and is the cause of infinite constituents of the universe. Hence, brahman is the single underlying principle for diversified objects and events. Conversely all objects and events have a single cause. The phrase “Unity in Diversity and Diversity in Unity” has its origin in Vedas, well reflected in Indian philosophy and popularly cited by many. 

The eternal truth (Brahman) is the unchanging reality in the changing universe. Hence Brahman is the cause of any dynamism in the universe. The accepted duality of light, sound and electrons in modern science is a blockage for realizing the supreme unified law of nature. Duality concept has to be dispensed while attempting to understand the unified principle of nature covering all domains. Removing duality from science is difficult but not impossible. Hence to develop harmony among sciences, one is required to make the basic assumption in the light of ‘pinde-brahmanda’ analogy that focuses the existing similarity of structure and features in different domains of nature. Therefore, the primary differences between the natural solar system and the artificial model of atoms are required to be removed by realizing the natural structure of atoms as the prototype of the solar system. Only after the successful removal of wave-particle duality of micro particles can the true unification of physical sciences be achieved. 

Unifying approach of modern science 

There is a continuous attempt for unification of different entities and the forces of nature in modern science. Unification of the fundamental forces of nature is considered as the top class of science, because force is the cause of dynamism (events) in different domains of nature. Therefore, access to the unified super-force has the scope of developing the theory of everything. Hence, it is no less than possessing the key of the universe. In the past scientists have successfully unified the gravitational mass and the inertial mass; the charge interaction and magnetic interaction (electromagnetic interaction). In the recent past, scientists have successfully unified mass & energy through mass-energy equivalence; space and time and made grand unification of the three fundamental forces of nature namely: electromagnetic interaction (force), strong nuclear force and weak nuclear force. Serious attempts are being made from quantum theory, field theory and string theory to achieve super unification of forces by clubbing gravity in the grand unified scheme. However, we are yet to achieve the super unification of the four fundamental forces. The large number of high-level intellectuals working on unification of fundamental forces of nature by making different approaches and the enormous time they spent for it is more than enough for achieving success. The delay in achieving complete unification makes one think, as if, there is something wrong somewhere in our understanding of basic-constituents and universal-entities such as mass, space, time, charge, energy which stands as a barrier in realizing the super-force. It is equally or more important to understand the cause of the forces of nature while attempting to unify them. Particle physicists trying to unify the fundamental forces look for the common phenomenon of the forces. According to their standard model, forces between interacting particles are mediated by the exchange of force carrier particles, also known as gauge bosons. It is, however, necessary to know the motivation (driving force) that produces the exchange of force carrier particles and further make it clear, how exactly force is carried by a particle? How is the mediation carried out functionally? Can force be carried & stored as a commodity from one place to another by virtue of some intrinsic property of the particles?  The field theory concept also needs clarification on different potential gradients formed by active particles forming different fields. We can as well perceive the reality of field forming particles by exploring into their matter value and presence of non-electric charge in particles of finer domain. If the existence of such matter particles is a reality in finer domains (say, micro-micro domain) then their role in forming the field requires elaborate justification which is missing. In string theory, the fundamental building blocks of the universe are not point-like particles (as in the Standard Model of particle physics) but tiny, one-dimensional objects called strings. These strings vibrate at different frequencies, and their vibrational modes correspond to different particles and forces in the universe. String theory also attempts to unify the forces of nature. String theory makes many unnatural hypotheses such as 1) the assumption of one-dimensional objects (strings) in place of point-like particles in the standard model of particle physics as the fundamental building block of the universe doesn’t appear realistic. If the hypothesized string concept is a reality then its replica would have been noticed in other domains. On the other hand, replicas of point-like particles are quite common in higher up domains. 2) The one-dimensional string is assumed to vibrate at different frequencies which correspond to different particles and forces. However, the one- dimensional string can vibrate only when there is presence of tension in the string and the frequency of vibration is a function of length of the string and the tension in the string. Tension in one-dimensional strings with free ends is not feasible therefore the basic hypothesis is deviated away from reality. 

The fundamental forces are likely to have a common universal cause which produces the force as well as the exchange of particles between interacting bodies. Understanding the basic common cause is the true unification of forces at the level of their cause. It is interesting to note, when many theories are proposed for unification of fundamental forces of nature, surprisingly no proposal is promoted in explaining the cause of any one of the fundamental forces of nature.

If the fundamental forces operating in different domains are unified then the force dependent centrally organized systems would show similarity in their structures and features. The unification of gravity and electromagnetic force is expected to result in the similarity of structure and features of the solar system and atomic system. Hence atoms can be conceptualized as miniaturized solar systems. The newly identified discrete nature of orbit in solar system [4], the shell-subshell features in the extranuclear space structure of solar system, the non-electric charge of sun & planets [5], the size variation of planets and the space structure of celestial bodies with shell features [4] are vital parameters of solar system. Therefore, while developing the planetary atomic model one should not ignore the replication of these important parameters of the solar system. The new planetary atomic structure is similar to the solar system in all respects, therefore doesn’t violate the uniformity of nature. The real atomic structure has scope of justifying the spectra and other atomic phenomena [6] directly from the structural features of the atom. Earlier attempts to develop the planetary atomic model didn’t succeed because many details of the solar system were not known then for incorporation of the same in the model. Thus, the incomplete planetary atomic model failed to provide justification on stability and the spectra of atoms. The new atomic structure having a complete similarity with the structure of the solar system fully supports the functional role of super force.

Unifying approach in Religion

In the religion front, the unity of religions is the idea that the teachings of many religions are part of a single plan from God and God is one. The Baháʼí Faith is a religion that teaches the unity of religions. The Sanatan Dharma (Hindu Religion) centers around the unifying qualities of Brahma conceptualized in Vedic science, therefore has a scientific approach. Satya Sai Baba also declares all religions are one implying there is no difference in the basic philosophy underlying different religions. 

Uniformity and consistency of nature in realizing the ultimate truth 

Vedic science describes the existence of a supreme reality/truth which is the cause of all existences and all happenings of the physical universe and beyond. The Vedic description is elaborate in describing the qualities/aspects of Brahman/ Supreme Truth. However, the clear-cut direct definition of Brahma (the supreme truth) is missing. Brahman being the cause of formation, stability and sublimation of all objects of the physical world could have been expressed directly in specific terms as the motivation for interaction between two basic constituents of the universe, of course, with a specific purpose. The supreme universal truth was experienced by Rishis by their supersensitive consciousness in the state of deep meditation. On the other hand, modern science made progress in discovering the domain specific laws of nature through interpretation of the results of precise experiments in systems of different domains. The results of an artificial experiment using different sensors also describe the truth/reality of nature because the experimental event is also governed by the laws of nature. However, any erroneous interpretation of the experimental result or enforcing unrealistic hypotheses deviating away from the path of commonly experienced realities such as ignoring commonsense, cause to effect analogy, making quantum assumptions without basis etc. introduces misconceptions on realities of nature. Though the assumptions made for the micro domain help to understand the events of the macro domain, they contradict the assumptions of the macro domain. Hence the domain specific assumptions are required to be harmonized for understanding the domain free universal truth of nature. If some domain-specific hypotheses of micro domain conflict with the cause to effect analogy and the uniformity of nature experience in other domains then they are to be replaced by new hypotheses for a greater cause of understanding the supreme truth of nature. This will not only develop harmony among the doctrines of different domains but also help in discovering the supreme reality of nature from study of different events.

Structure of the atom was modeled to justify the spectra of the atom but in the process the atomic structure deviated away from the structure of the solar system making violation of the uniformity of nature. Moreover, the model doesn’t explain the thermodynamic properties of gas directly from the structural features and functional properties of atoms and molecules. No atom exists in isolation because the said atom has constant interaction with background and linkage with neighboring atoms. Similarly, a star (say, our solar system) is not the only star in the galaxy; it has linkage with neighboring stars. Likewise, any galaxy has interactive coordination and links with other galaxies. In this way every system of the universe has links with all other systems in the universe. In this manner the entire universe remains interconnected with all its constituents. The atoms make elastic collisions with other atoms in thermodynamic processes which imply the elastic structure of atoms. Hence, the structure of an atom is a function of both its nucleus and the state property of its background. The basic universal norm of nature is reflected equally in all systems of the universe in different domains and atoms are no exception to this. Thus, the cause of the system-based laws is backed by the universal norm of nature. Hence properly conceptualized system-based laws also reveal the universal norm/law of nature. Even with the interconnectedness of the universe, any system can be studied in isolation by considering the proper boundary condition of the system that represents the boundary-free external links/interactions. To realize the boundary condition, consider some balloons in a chamber. If now the pressure of the chamber is increased or decreased then all balloons will respond to the change and vary in their size responding to the pressure of the chamber. Any single balloon can be studied in isolation but with boundary conditions. On the other hand, the boundary conditions of atoms are not taken into consideration while deciding the number of feasible electronic shells/subshells of atoms formed by the nucleus. The atoms on the surface of the earth have the terrestrial space-time properties as the boundary condition of the atoms and the atoms on the surface of the sun have different space-time properties as their boundary condition. But in the present atomic model, the boundary condition is not considered in the nucleus-based electronic shells/subshells structure. This author has conceptualized the change of electronic structure of atom depending on the background condition and shown how a neutral atom on the surface of the earth, if shifted abruptly to the surface of the sun become anion and the neutral atom on surface of sun if shifted to the surface of the earth becomes a cation [7]. This new electronic structure of the atom helps to establish the solid/liquid state of the sun despite high temperatures where thermodynamics failed to justify the stability of the solid and liquid state. The solid/liquid state of the surface of the sun helps to justify 1) the sharp demarcation of the interface at the so-called photo sphere, 2) why we don’t receive high temperature radiations from below the photosphere and 3) the observed phenomena during solar flare [7]. 

Similarly, accepting wave-particle duality of light, sound and electron are deviations from the consistency of nature. The quantum atomic model has been designed by retrofitting the spectra of atoms. But atoms have many aspect-based truths other than their spectra. For example, the quantum atomic model fails to explain why atoms and molecules are not settling down on to the surface of the earth by gravitational attraction. The real structure of an atom agreeing with the consistency and uniformity of nature can have direct answers to different aspect properties of the atom including its structural stability and the spectra [6]. This author has further discussed that sound is not a longitudinal wave but only the motion of sound particles [8] hence no duality exists in the theory of sound. He has also removed duality from the theory of light [9] The new domain-free universal science fully accommodating the uniformity and consistency (free from duality) of nature has scope of explaining different phenomena in different domains without violating the cause to effect analogy. This doesn’t stop the understanding of local events in local language or the language of any domain by using the local parameters of any domain. Hence knowing the domain free universal theory of nature corresponds to the theory of everything.

Accessing the unified norm of nature (supreme truth of nature)

The supreme unified norm of the dynamic universe with its constituents in a dynamic state can be attributed to the force that induces dynamism of the system in any domain. Modern science has identified 4 fundamental forces of nature for the dynamism of systems in different domains. It is conceptualized that the forces are produced by interaction between constituents of the universe. Hence, the one supreme reality of Vedic science matches with one universal interaction between two basic constituents of the universe. Thus, for realization of the unified super-force the formless basic physical constituents of the universe have to be reduced to two only where the interaction of basic formless constituents becomes one. Unifying the basic concept of Vedic science and modern science, this author has identified mass and space as the only two formless physical constituents of the universe, capable of interacting between them which results force [10]. Matter at any stage and in any domain is a mass-space integral system [11].  Electric charge does not have a fundamental status. Charge appears in matter particles if there is a difference in the ratio of mass and space compared to that of matters in the surrounding. Matters having the same ratio of mass and space are neutral to one another. If a neutral particle of one environment is taken to another neutral environment having different mass-space ratio then the said neutral particle becomes a charge-particle in the new environment having different mass-space ratio. No particle is neutral to all environments, hence there is nothing like a neutral matter. The mass rich subatomic particles in a neutral environment carry positive electric charge and the space rich particles carry negative charge in the same neutral environment. Thus, the electric charge interaction is basically the interactions of mass and space. The constituents of matters of different domains are only mass and space. The density of mass and space and the dimension of matter of different domains are different, hence the strength and range of charge interaction are different in matters of different domains [10]. The author has identified different nonelectric charges such as photonic charge and celestial charge [5] in light particles and celestial bodies respectively for uniformity of charge property of matter in different domains. Hence, the differential mass space association is the cause of charge state (electric and non-electric charge) of matter and the mass space interaction is the cause of different charge interaction. Hence, the mass space interaction refers to the supreme reality of nature in Vedic terms and is the cause of all fundamental forces of nature in modern science. Hence, the four fundamental forces have built in unification at the level of their cause. 

   All attempts to develop planetary atomic models failed in the past. The primary reason for failure is that many details of the solar system were not known then. Thus, the incomplete planetary model failed in justifying stability and explaining the spectra of atoms. Thereafter, the atom was modeled by making quantum assumptions that explained the spectra; however, questioning the quantum assumptions is forbidden. At present many differences are known to exist between the solar system and atomic system despite many similarities. The differences can be removed by identifying the atom specific properties (discrete orbit) in the solar system and the features of the solar system in the atomic system [6]. If all aspects of the solar system are understood properly and these features are reflected in a new atomic model then the model should explain all phenomena of atoms including those yet unknown. The author has made a detailed study on different aspects of dynamics of the solar system [4]. Incorporation of all structural features of the solar system in the planetary atomic model makes the new atomic structure in the light of reality which harmonizes metaphysics and physics.  

In exploring the one supreme principle (interaction) for the physical world we have to reduce the basic constituent of the universe to only two entities so that their mutual interaction becomes one. Analyzing the concepts of panchamahabhuta in Vedas and different states of matter in modern science one comes to conclusion that mass and space are the only two formless basic physical constituents of the universe. Different objects (particle and body) being composed of mass and space of the universe can have different form, mass-space ratio and form-based property thereby having a specific identity with a name.  Borrowing the law of mixture of panchamahabhuta discussed in Ayurveda, one can conclude that any existence is a mass-space integral system having specific form-based property for external interaction. The external-interaction property of different forms of matter is caused due to basic formless interaction of mass & space and the geometry of the form. The charge property of matter can be understood from the non-equilibrium state of mass-space association of the system relative to that of its surrounding. Thus, the formless mass-space interaction is the basic norm of nature and it is the cause of all form-based interactions of matter in all domains. The new formless mass-space interaction in modern science is in harmony with the significance of Brahma in Vedic science. We find, the diversity of forms with form-based properties is caused due to the basic formless interaction property of mass and space. Again, the basic formless interaction of mass and space gives rise to diversity of forms with form-based properties.  The statement ‘Unity in Diversity and Diversity in unity’ which is the essence of Vedas is also valid in modern science.  This ensures the feasibility of unification of sciences.

Conclusion  

Stretching ahead a step of the left leg can make one move forward provided he pulls out his right leg from the attachment of the ground. Thus, any proposal for establishing a unified science covering Vedic science and modern science, some established domain specific concepts of modern science may have to be compromised. The humble attempt of unification of sciences is bound to face many confrontations. However, trying to understand a new theory based on a new concept which is a replacement of an old theory based on old concepts should not be examined in the light of old concepts. The author feels the present concepts of micro domain science have deviated away from the reality of nature by ignoring the uniformity and consistency of nature. The domain specific concepts and laws of the micro domain are not extendable to the macro domain hence have limitations in becoming universal. Therefore, the basic concepts of the physical universe should remain invariant for different domains, only then one can have access to the basic norm/supreme reality/ultimate truth/universal truth of nature by exploring the hidden formless interaction property in all forms. The formless interaction of basic constituents is common to all forms hence it is the cause of all forms and form-based properties in any domain. Hence the formless mass-space interaction is the cause of all fundamental forces of nature and the forces remain unified in the common cause. The unified cause of the forces of nature results in similarity of structure and features in systems of different domains. Therefore, it is absolutely necessary to find the total similarity between the atomic system and solar system in respect of their structure and features and also remove the wave-particle duality to achieve unification of domain-based sciences. The unification is difficult since the above modifications are many and not easy. The author has made a serious study to bridge the gap between micro and macro domain sciences. Some success in this direction has been suggested by this author in different articles in this journal. 

References

1. https://philosophyofnature.org.in/different-domains-of-nature.
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3. https://www.yogapedia.com/definition/9326/yat-pinde-tat-brahmande#:~:text=The%20translation%20of%20yat%20pinde,macrocosm.%E2%80%9D%20For%20yogis%2C%20this.
4. https://philosophyofnature.org.in/new-findings-on-placement-of-orbital-bodies-and-new-characterization-of-motion-of-orbital-celestial-bodies/.
5. https://philosophyofnature.org.in/electric-and-non-electric-charges-and-their-inter-conversion/.
6. https://philosophyofnature.org.in/modelling-atomic-system/.
7. https://philosophyofnature.org.in/similar-state-of-matter-of-nuclei-in-different-domains/.
8. https://philosophyofnature.org.in/revival-of-the-particle-concept-of-sound.
9. New particle theory of light removing duality, (page no.227), Universal Mystery Unfolded, Dynamics of Universe interplay of matter, space and charge, vol.3, ISBN [978-81-89726-68-3].
10. https://philosophyofnature.org.in/basic-constituents-of-universe-and-their-interactions/.
11. https://philosophyofnature.org.in/mass-space-structure-of-centrally-organized-systems/.