Abstract

In this paper, the fundamental reasons behind the adverse impact of rapid material progress of man on himself and his environment are traced to the very roots of the phenomenal Universe in the light of the eternal message Of the Bhagavad Gita, which is lauded as the storehouse of Divine Wisdom and practical guidance to steer us out of any spatio-temporal trouble in a smooth and successful manner. It is shown that the Gita sees the environment and the living beings as “siblings”, both taking their origin from the Lord and existing in a mutual dependence scenario. However, the development paradigm followed at present in the era of scientific and technological progress envisages Nature as something to be exploited for human progress, and thus runs counter to the Gita vision, resulting it the kind of turbulences, disasters and degradations that we now see around us,

Keywords: Sustainable Development, Sustainable Development Goals, Bhagavad Gita, Prakriti, Environment. 

Introduction

The bifurcation of all existence into a perceiving subject and a perceived object is a peculiar but common experience of all creatures including humans. The organic interrelationship obtained between the subject and the object has never been ignored to such an extent as has been done in the context of man’s greedy exploitation of Nature during the 20^th century for material progress. The concept of an environment external to the physical body of man (or of human society) being a milch-cow for acquiring comforts and conveniences through the manufacture of goods and gadgets is an artifact of erroneous perception on our part because, in reality, man and his environment together make up one whole which is the cosmic existence, supremely non-dual and governed by the infallible and inexorable, eternal principle of action and reaction (Karma and Karma-phala) among its parts. Whenever any finite part of this non-dual existence arrogates itself to the position of an enjoyer at the expense of another, there follow grave repercussions to correct the erroneous perception of the individuality or the finitude, which separated itself from the other or from the rest of the whole existence for a selfish purpose.

For this reason, all so-called advancements of the 20^th century have depleted resources to a large extent and have injured the biosphere considerably which, in its turn, has reacted back on us in the form of various environmental concerns and crises starting from soil pollution to space pollution, from pesticides to space junks, from acid rains to global climate change.

The urge for economic prosperity and political hegemony has been so powerful with the developed western nations that it has blinded them to the intimate organic relationship that exists between them and the so-called less-developed countries. The oneness of humanity and the environment is conveniently and readily forgotten by the developed nations when it comes to exploitation of natural resources and dumping of hazardous wastes in the backyard of the less developed ones. Economic exploitation of the less-developed ones in the guise of various developmental aids in various sectors through the formation and utilisation of various world fora such as the UNO, the IMF and the WB as the handmaids has been played to perfection in the last sixty years by these western nations, giving very little breathing space to the former in terms of even a temporary relief from the ever-widening debt-trap. The problems are so complicated and so hugely diversified in nature that we have to seek a master solution in the form of a complete overhauling of our notions of development and of the overall meaning of human existence here on this planet Earth. No amount of piecemeal approach or patch-up policy with a lackadaisical attitude (but seemingly very serious on the face of it) in the guise of flowery phrases like ‘sustainable development’ is going to help us in the long run as long as we do not probe deep into the meaning of existence and of the purpose of life here.

To what end is all progress? Is our definition of man and environment in any sense complete when we talk of progress or development? Answers to such questions cannot be had in the scientific literature nor through any technological research but, have to be found within our own being, within ourselves, by a sincere search after the Truth of existence. If we are not prepared for this yet, then we have to prepare ourselves through inner development for this, rather than striving for any outer accumulation of luxuries and conveniences. We have to clearly understand and act accordingly.

The ‘Bhagavad Gita’ or ‘the Song Divine’ presents before humanity of all times the ultimate understanding of man, the Universe and of God including that of their inter-relationship in a very lucid and compelling manner that immediately resonates with the inner being of man irrespective of any spatio-temporal location because of its straightforward and gradational approach to lift man up from where he finds himself at any particular moment. It provides practical guidance as to how we can overcome any crisis or conflict in the best possible manner. Coming as it does, from the Supreme being Himself, it gives extremely precise answers to our quest for development and also gives us clear-cut directions necessary for the successful resolution of the personal, social, environmental and spiritual problems that we are faced with at the present moment.

We shall, in this paper, discuss the present situation of the environment in Section-II, our current outlook towards development in Section-III and then proceed to the ‘Bhagavad Gita’ to enlighten us in regard to these issues in Section IV and V respectively before concluding with a discussion in Section-VI.

The Present Environmental Scenario

Man’s immediate environment consists of the water bodies (Hydrosphere), Air (Atmosphere) and the Solid Earth (Lithosphere), that support and nurture life in a harmonious manner which is confined to a very limited portion of their extensive existence known as the Biosphere. The physical body of man is considered to represent the man himself and is made up of portions drawn from the biosphere with which it is required to perform continuous but rhythmical exchanges of matter and energy for its sustenance and growth till its dissolution in death back into the very ingredients of the biosphere. The same is of course true of every living organism.

Unfortunately for man, he is also possessed of a mind full of desires to appropriate to himself as much as possible from whatever is available around himself and thus, he cannot just exist like a dead stone or a plant or an animal. He has a quest for unlimited possession of objects which are pleasing to his mental make-up over and above the basic amenities like food, clothing and shelter etc., which of course, are readily available to all creatures in the biosphere. Not quite realizing that his body as well as his possessions rightfully belong to the biosphere, man started exploiting it to satisfy his selfish desires to such an extent that the very environment that contributed like a mother to his birth and growth has now become dangerous for him to live in, as a consequence of the relentless law of retribution that ruthlessly operates wherever selfishness raises its ugly head. As a result, the air that we breathe, the water that we drink and the very earth that we stand upon have become sources of trouble for us and we are going to face large scale problems of survival in the coming two to three centuries. The alarming rate of depletion of the natural resources through technology and the specter of pollution-related epidemics and climatic disasters have been combinedly referred to as the environmental crisis.

There have been very rational-looking proposals like the ‘Sustainable Earth Society’ (SES) based on ‘Sustainable Development’ so that mankind can continue to survive and progress on this planet with the help of more advanced technologies. But, the sustainability of such proposals needs to be thoroughly assessed for reasons that are explored in this work.

Development: The Current Picture

Development of a society is understood to be the process of ensuring higher life expectancy, availability of education, healthcare, communication and infrastructure to all sections, higher rates of economic growth in terms of increased production and consumption with considerable surplus in all essential goods and a comfortable life for all members of the society. All these factors have been put together in what is now known as the Human development index (HDI), which has been calculated for most of the countries. The western developed nations expectedly rank at the top whereas the small south Asian or African nations rank at the bottom as the least developed countries having very low HDI.

The concept of human development as envisaged in this scheme is, however, not a sustainable one since it runs counter to the realities concerning man and his intimate relation with his environment. Increased per-capita production and consumption of substances entails exploitation and depletion of the available natural resources continuously beyond their renewable or recoverable limits through industries and agriculture. This leads to the generation of huge amounts of wastes and pollutants of various kinds which degrade the environment. A sustained growth of the economy can be ensured only at the cost of a sustained degradation of the environment, which is disastrous in the end for the whole mankind.

The Sustainable Earth proposals include

1. Population control and healthcare
2. Conservation of all non-renewable resources by switching to renewable resources
3. Pollution control by adopting cleaner technologies
4. Conservation of Biodiversity
5. Maximum recycling and reuse of waste
6. Avoiding the use of non-biodegradable substances
7. Environmental Education and awareness at all levels of society.
8. Building things that last longer and are easier to recycle reuse and repair etc.

It is claimed that these steps, if undertaken, will lead to minimal environmental impact with a minimal population growth rate and thus would lead to a sustainable development of the society. However, on a closer look several contradictions come to the fore.

Let us look at proposals (f) and (h) above. We have to have non-biodegradability along with longevity which is possible only with plastics and polythene or with metals. Metals are prone to oxidation and erosion, while plastics lead to environmental pollution. The way out of this is to go for proposal (e) which advocates recycling and reuse of such wastes. However, every round of recycling gives a more brittle and less useful, short-lived substance unless it is added with further newer substances to increase its strength and longevity. The environmental costs of the recycling plants will always be higher than the usual ones for direct processing of raw materials. With each succeeding stage of recycling the utility value of the substance would fall and would ultimately end in more waste generation and pollution.

The unhealthy practices of population control by adopting large scale use of condoms may prove to be a hazardous practice as far as the environment is concerned after 30 to 40 years. We are simply and indiscriminately throwing tones of non-biodegradable substances (Latex) on the earth thereby polluting the pedosphere. Mankind does not foresee the impact of a practice unless and until it reaches an alarming proportion. The examples of hazardous medical wastes and electronic wastes are cases in point where we see how myopically we undertake programmes and practices.

Looking at the history of the development of science and technology, one can readily see their fallibility due to their being based solely on empirical sense data and analytical inferences which makes them prone to frequent changes, alterations, modifications and even rejections in favor of something new which goes by the name of “progress of science”. The very fact that something is in a process of development means that it is incomplete and unfortunately, we have gotten accustomed to basing our lives on such shaky foundations as science and technology.

German mathematician Kurt Godel in 1931 proved a completely mathematical theorem known as ‘Godel’s incompleteness Theorem’’ which states that,” any axiomatic system (e.g., scientific theory) is incomplete”. This proves the fact of the finitude of the human intellect and of the unreliability of empirical sense data as foundations for the search after Reality. One can verify the veracity of the theorem by taking a look at the history of the progress of science through the continuously changing axiomatic systems.

As an interesting example of falsification, we take the well accepted “fact”: “Human wants are unlimited” and go on to show how it is a false premise in economics. In fact, this is also related to the issue of the environmental crisis since we cannot accept a “society without wants” or a “human being without wants” as a reality. Because, we have a sense of ‘want’, and we ‘want’ to develop. Then, all the development and the related problems arise.

Suppose, we ask a human being to simply spell out his wants in quick succession at the rate of two wants per second for eighteen hours every day for his entire life of, say, 100 years. We may even take the help of computers, to get the picture of the wants from advanced brain scanners including his dreams also. It turns out that this man can have at the most 10¹⁰ (One followed by ten zeros) wants and if we assume the population to be 6 X 10⁹, then the total number of ‘wants’ of humanity comes out to be no greater than 10²⁰, which still is a finite number, though large, but certainly not infinite or unlimited. A more realistic calculation taking into account the time spent in fulfilling desires and other regular day-to-day activities essential for the maintenance of good health would drastically reduce the number of wants that a person can have in life. So, this very famous, oft-quoted hypothesis has been proved wrong very flatly by our little analysis. Like this, all hypotheses can be falsified on which rest the huge edifices of the most successful and rational scientific theories!

Should we base our programmes and our lives in general on science and rationality? Can we not go for some other profounder alternative which we can safely rely on, without any fear of contradictions? The best available treatise in this regard would be the Bhagavad Gita which with her wonderfully complete message gives the much-needed safe technology in addition to a deep understanding of the concepts of man, environment and development.

Environment in the Gita:

According to the Gita, the Supreme reality or Paramatma is the source of both, the perceiving subject and the perceived object referred to as the ‘para’ and the ‘apara’ prakriti’s respectively. The ‘para prakriti’ (Superior Nature) of the Lord is in the form of jiva (individuals) while the ‘apara prakriti’ (Interior Nature), also a manifestation of the Lord, is in the form of the five great elements, the mind, the intellect and the ego:

“Bhumirapoanalovayuh kham manobuddireve Cha I

                                                                                    Ahamkara iteeyam me bhinna prakritirashtadha II (7-4)

                                                                                    Apareyamitastvanyam prakritim viddhi me param I

                                                                                    Jivabhutam Mahavaho yayedam dharyate jagat II” (7-5)

The human being or any living creature which is the Jiva, is an eternal spark of the Lord and it draws to itself the conditioning and distinguishing characteristics of the mind, intellect and the ego.

It is clear that our present concept of the environment of man is not as per the Gita inasmuch as we do not include the inner nature consisting of the mind intellect and the ego in the definite. This is because, we consider man to be the empirical self or the physical body so that whatever is beyond the body can be regarded as the environment. Now, the Gita points out that this is incomplete and that the true man or living being is a part and parcel of God and hat all the rest has to be the environment. This environment or apara prakriti is again a manifestation of God. The great lesson to be learnt here is that both the Jiva and the jagat or, man and his environment are like siblings cloned from the same source, God who brooks any kind of exploitation of the one by the other through the law of action-reaction which guarantees the oneness and the wholeness of His Being.

When this is grasped, then the mode of our relation with the environment has to be the same as that with God Himself, since the environment is none other than God Himself! It has to be an attitude of worshipfulness and adoration manifested in and through our actions in daily life. The Lord says in the Gita:

“Mattah parataram nanyadkimchidasti Dhananjaya!

                                                                                       Mayi sarvamidam protam sutre manigana iva “ (7-7)

There is nothing other than or different from me,. Everything is strewn in me like flowers in the thread of a garland. Similarly, the Ishopanishad also states the same fact:

“Ishavasyamidam sarvam yatkimcha jagatyam jagat

                                                                                        Tena tyaktena bhunjittha ma griddha Kasya  Svit dhanam” (Isa.Up.-1)

The first line of this opening verse of the Ishopanishad declares that everything here is indwelt by the Lord. Similarly, the ‘Narayana Suktam’ of Krishna Yajurveda 13.10.5 declares the same fact with a slight variation:

“Yatcha kimchit jagat sarvam drishyate shruyate apiva 

                                                                                         Antarvahischa tatsarvam vyapya Narayanah sthitah”

“Whatever in there is this world that is seen or heard of, is pervaded within and without by the Lord”. The phrases like “Vasudevah Sarvam “–Everything is the Supreme Reality” (Gita-7.19); “Sarvam Khalvidam Brahma –Everything is the Lord (Chhandogya Upanishad, 3.14.1)”, “Sarvam Vishnumayam jagat– this whole universe is pervaded by the lord”, are all meant to convey to us the self-same truth that our environment (including ourselves) is a manifestation of the lord and our interaction with the environment should be in keeping with this great fact.

In many verses in the ‘Vibhuti Yoga’ (Ch.-10) of the Gita, the Lord explicitly refers to his divine presence in Ganga (srotasmasmi Jahnavi– 10-31) in the Himalayas (Sthavaranam Himalayah: 10-25); and in the peepal tree (Ashvathah sarva vrikshyanam: 10-26) etc. as places of His special manifestation, apart from His general all-pervading presence. So, in all these and many more aspects of His glorious manifestation as this Universe, we must learn to adore Him in and through all our activities. This is the ultimate and perfect understanding that we gain from the Bhagavad Gita about ourselves and our environment.

The Gita Approach to Development

That process which takes us out of our present situation or position to a better one can be termed as development and it should be such that there is no back-reaction in the form of suffering or regress following an attempt at such development. This process of development must continue till we reach the very pinnacle, beyond which further development is neither possible nor required. Development can only happen to him or that which is under-developed or partially developed.

What then, is human development? Who or which part of ours or of nature needs development? Why should we develop and to what end? These are very pertinent questions to be addressed sufficiently clearly before embarking on any developmental efforts, more so, when the Lord Himself tells us that He is already present inherently and pervasively in the earth, water, fire air, ether etc. including ourselves.

So, we cannot be foolhardy in dealing with anything within or without us because of the omnipresence of the Lord. That part of the Lord where there is the feeling of dissatisfaction with the present lot needs development. The earth, the water, the air etc. are all fully content with what they are and what they have. So, they need no development. They are supremely happy!  But, not always! For, there is interaction with another manifestation of the Lord in the form of the jiva (individual soul) with mind etc., which is restless for some reason or the other and thus, is in continuous need of development, which it thinks, can be achieved by appropriating parts of nature to itself! This selfish proposal of man to develop himself by adding externals to his possession is the crux of the matter.

What shall man do? He cannot sit calming without developing! The Lord says:

“Bhogaishvarya prasaktanam tayapahrita chetisam

Vyavasayatmika  buddhi samadhayu no vidhiyate “ ( 2-44),

meaning that: “those who are given to the acquirement of material prosperity and sensual pleasures and are completely overpowered by these desires do not have an intellect that is developed enough, or fit for union with God in one-pointed meditation, the highest goal of human life”.

True development of man, according to the Gita, is in an uplifting of his inner being from the limited, finite human status to the unlimited, superhuman or divine status. We are born humans and we should not get stuck all our lives in this human level, since, life is the continuous movement towards ever-greater and ever-broader expansiveness of being. Not understanding this truth, we run after material prosperity, that too, by the indiscriminate and selfish exploitation of Nature, which is none other than God Himself. We are meant for experiencing God within and not for exploiting Him without.

But, nevertheless, God, all-merciful as He is, takes cognizance of our ego-based selfish desires and grants us a great concession when He says that, He is the ethical desires in beings – “Dharmaviruddha bhuteshu Kamoasmi Bharatsarshabha”(7-11). Thus, we have a respite and we realize that God Himself appears as the morally approved desires in man, which when fulfilled in the right manner as per the guidelines prescribed by the scriptures, become also helpful processes in the expansion of the being of man to the divine level. When the desires are not ethically or morally approved, when they are not fulfilled as per the scriptural procedures, then suffering results:

“Yah sashtravidhimutsrijya vartate kamakaratah!

                                                                                     Na sa siddhimavapnoti, na sukham na param gatim” (16 -23)

The right techniques of the fulfilment of such desires have also been delineated by the lord with due reasoning:

“Sahayajnah prajah srishtva purovacha prajapatih!

                                                                                        Anena prasavishyadhvamesha voastvishtakamdhuk (3-10)

                                                                                       “Devanbhavayatanena te devah bhavayantu Vah!

                                                                                        parasparam bhavayantah shreyah paramavapsyatha” (3-11)

                                                                                       “Ishtanbhogan hi vo devah dasyante yajnabhavitah

                                                                                       Tairdattanapradayaivyo yo bhunkte stena eva sah (3-12)

“Yajnasishtasinah santo nuchyante sarva kilvishaih

                                                                                      Bhunjante to tvagham papah ye pachantmatnukaranat” (3- 13)

                                                                                     “Yajnasishtamritabhujo yanti Brahma sanatanam

                                                                                      Naayam lokoastyayajnasya kutoanyah kurusattamah ” (3-31)

“The creator having created the entire Universe along with the principle of “Yajna” or sacrifice told the humans and the Gods that, may this Yajna, this spirit of self-sacrifice be the wish-fulfilling cow for all of you. May the humans propitiate the gods by Yajna and may the gods be satisfied through this self-offering and grant them boons as desired. May both parties attain their supreme goal through this method or technology of Yajna? However, those who, without first offering to the gods their share, appropriate or consume the materials or contact sense objects for enjoyment which rightfully belong to the gods themselves, are but a thief. (Gita ch. 3, verses: 10, 11, 12).

“Those who take the remnants of a sacrifice go beyond all sin and those who cook food for themselves only, that is, who selfishly enjoy the objects, enjoy only sin (Gita: 2-13). On the other hand, the ones who eat the remnants of a sacrifice, go to the abode of the eternal, the supreme being, while those who try to enjoy without sacrifice, do not get their desired ends even here, what to speak of the higher levels of existence.

Similarly, the second line of the opening verse of the Ishopanishad quoted in the last section also tells us that the right technique of enjoying anything is by sacrificing first of all to the gods, who are the proprietors of all that we wish to enjoy here.

As to whether we should only be content with exploring the inner secrets of Nature through science or, should we go for technology, the Lord very categorically replies that, “science is certainly better than technology”.

‘Shreyan dravyamayajjainat jnana yajnah parantapa

Sarva karmakhilam Partha jnane parisamapyate” (4-33)

“Material development is certainly inferior to advancement of understanding through deep study and meditation”.

Now, here is a clue offered by the Supreme Being to the science planners of India that we should concentrate on science i.e., fundamental science, rather than on technology. This of course, does not in any way mean that we become retrograde as far as material progress is concerned. What it emphasizes on the other hand, is that material progress should be achieved by adopting the process of Yajna without any kind of exploitation of natural resources. Our entire attitude and approach to outer development changes due to the inner evolution in understanding. God as Earth, God as water, God as air, God as fire and God as space itself must not be treated with scant respect as a milch-cow for our selfish desires. “We cannot salute and pollute at the same time” as we grow in knowledge of the all-pervasiveness of the Lord.

The state of ultimate development for an individual has been stated to be the attainment of ‘para gati’ or ‘parama gati’ in Gita verses: 8-13 and 8-22, wherein, all doubts and desires vanish, wisdom shines forth from within as streams of revelation and one is established in eternal communion with the Supreme Reality. This state is variously termed as God- realization, self-realization, liberation or moksha etc.

Thus, as long as we persist with our incorrect and incomplete understanding of man, the Universe and God, there can be no hope of sustainable development, no matter how rational it may seem on the face of it as a scheme.

Discussion and conclusion

We have done an analysis of the present environmental and developmental scenarios from the scientific-human and from the spiritual Divine perspectives and have shown very clearly how our erroneous conception of both the environment as well as of development has led to the selfish pursuit of exploitation of nature. In fact, in a certain sense, we are no better than the ancient aboriginal cavemen whom we derogatorily label as “hunter-gatherers”. While the ancient hunter-gatherers hunted animals and gathered foods, we, the modern hunter-gatherers hunt minerals and gather goods! But, there is one difference, and a significant one at that- they were satisfied when their needs were fulfilled, but we are never satisfied because our greed is never fulfilled. Thus, we are never at repose, never at peace with ourselves, with the world or with God.

This peculiar restlessness of man is increasing day by day by the stupid adoption of technology-based industrialization to entice everybody into the hedonistic, all-consuming flame of consumerism at the Global level.

As far as India is concerned, lack of proper understanding of the Indian mind, lack of vision for the methods of progress suitable for our society and lack of will have completely impoverished us at the moment and we have become an idealless society. We look to the west for everything, right from the basic amenities like food, clothing and shelter to the pursuit of science, technology and cultural values. We do not have an Indian viewpoint on anything under the sun! How has all this come upon this great land of the illumined saints and sages? What has swept the ground away from under our feet so that we are floating in utter confusion and seem to be heading towards an inevitable doom?

It is our own ignorance and forgetfulness that has temporarily blinded us to the rock-solid spiritual reality of India that is firmly fixed to the eternal and the infinite. The terra firma of the ageless wisdom of our great ancient forefathers as well as the great modern masters has to become the very basis of our lives, if we are to make a mark in any field, for; they provide us with the essential nourishment. Moreover, because the spiritual teachings are the very life-breath of everyone on earth, we have to realize that we have everything to guide the world out of its deep delusion of materiality onto the glorious effulgence of Divine wisdom through the knowledge and practice of Yoga and Spirituality. Then and only then, earth would truly be sustainable as a dwelling.

Reference

1. S, Sivananda, Srimad Bhagavad Gita, 5th edition, Ch. 2,3,7,8,10, 17, DLS Publications, Rishikesh, Himalayas, India, (2014) ISBN-13 ‏ : ‎ 978-8170520009
2. S. Krishnananda, Chhandogya Upanishad, 3.14.1, DLS Publications ISBN-13 ‏: ‎ 978-8170521617.
3. S. Sivananda, Isa Upanishad, 1, The Principal Upnishads, DLS Publications, Rishikesh, India, ISBN-13 ‏ : ‎ 978-8170520016
4. K. Godel (1931), Über formal unentscheidbare Sätze der Principia Mathematica und verwandter Systeme, I”, in Solomon Feferman, ed., 1986. Kurt Gödel Collected works, Vol. I. Oxford University Press, pp. 144–195. ISBN 978-0195147209.
5. UNO, Sustainable Development Goals, https://sdgs.un.org/#goal section.

Abstract

Four forces are used for understanding the amazing universe. One force among them about which we are curious is the nuclear force of nature. Although it is the strongest force among all, we are unable to experience this force due to its short-range effectiveness. The present article discusses the possible reason behind the fact that there is no definite expression for such a strong interaction.    

Keywords : Forces of nature, nuclear potential, Igo ambiguity, Unification of theories.

Introduction

When we see nature and the natural phenomena taking place, we ask many questions to ourselves. Why does Earth revolve round the Sun? How do the planets stay in orbits around the Sun? How does sunray travel to reach us? How does the Sun produce so much heat energy? Why do stars twinkle in the sky? Why are the plants green, but our blood is red? Why do nuclei form atoms and the atoms come together to give us matter? Why do pieces of magnet repel or attract each other? And many more. In toto, we are eager to know why the phenomena are the way they are. In particular, while finding the answers to the questions related to repulsion and attraction, we come across an important physical quantity called force. Interestingly, we have been working for centuries to describe the various forces that dictate interactions on the largest and smallest scales, from huge planets to invisible particles. The nature of interactions is almost the same everywhere, but their strength and properties differ. Based on the various factors the interactions are basically categorized into four types. Thus, there are four fundamental forces in nature. The four fundamental forces are: 

(i) Gravitational force,

(ii) Electromagnetic force,

(iii) Strong nuclear force, and

(iv) Weak force.

At present, we deal with only these four fundamental forces to explain so many phenomena of nature, but we are unable to explain all the natural phenomena. Although these forces are responsible for shaping the universe we inhabit, they have limitations to analyse certain strange behaviors of nature. The gravitational force and the electromagnetic force are familiar forces, because such interactions are experienced by we all in our daily life. But, the other two forces are still not familiar to common people. Moreover, the strong nuclear force is still a mystery. As the nuclear force acts within a very small dimension of the nucleus, we deal with nuclear potential that represents the nuclear force. However, there is no definite formula for the nuclear potential unlike gravitational potential and electromagnetic potential.

Discussion

Although nuclear forces affect our daily lives, we are unable to feel them. It is because they work on distances smaller than atoms. Nuclear force that holds together the building blocks of atoms is the strongest interaction in nature, but it is short range. This force is essential to hold together the protons and neutrons in order to build nuclei. The force also acts within neutrons and protons which are built up when the strong force holds together the tiny quarks. 

The making of nucleus with protons and neutrons as ingredients cannot be explained by electromagnetism and gravity. If we consider only the electromagnetic and gravitational forces, then the nucleus should fly off in different directions due to pre-dominant repulsion. The interaction taking place in the strong nuclear force is about 100 times stronger than electromagnetic interaction. If we compare it with gravity, then the strong force is about 1038 times stronger than the gravitational force. But the influence of nuclear force quickly dies for anything larger than the nucleus of a medium-sized atom. The nuclear force will be disappearing and other forces will be dominating outside the atoms. The interaction is simply amazing and uncommon. The charged protons having similar polarity even attract each other with nuclear forces inside a nucleus in order to build up the nucleus. Even the neutral neutrons attract each other with nuclear forces inside a nucleus. Thus, it is the nuclear force for which the existence of elements is possible and the formation of matter is achievable. Thus, it is the strongest nuclear force for which the present universe is due.

We are in a position to describe the cause behind the presence of nuclear force, but equally unable to find a definite expression for such a strong interaction. It is now a challenge for the researchers to know the true form of nuclear potential existing between all pairs of nucleons. If only one knew the strong-interaction between the nucleons, then perhaps a solution of the Schrodinger equation would provide a basic understanding of the properties of nuclei. The problem of deriving such a potential has been attacked by the foremost theoretical and experimental nuclear physicists. The job of defining such potential has become a phenomenological one, involving the acquisition of large amounts of data from various scattering experiments in different laboratories. 

In order to define nuclear potential the optical model potential (OMP) is one of few established methods for analyzing experimental data obtained from nuclear interactions. The elastic scattering angular distributions are usually analyzed in the framework of OMP, which can be extended further to analyze many complicated nuclear phenomena. Parameters of the potential can be extracted by effective comparison of theoretical calculations with experimental values. Despite a large number of system-studies and huge data, the nuclear potential is not uniquely described till date. A little agreement is found among different analyses [1]. A number of OMPs fit theoretical calculations with experimental data and explain the results. Numerous different families of OMP parameters successfully describe the same experimental data, but the families have no satisfactory correlation among them. This leads to Igo ambiguity [2] as pointed out by George Igo. To settle down such ambiguity we may cite alpha-particle elastic scattering experiments in low and medium energy range. The experiments are very sensitive to the surface of the nuclear potential, but yield no information about the central part of the nuclear potential [1].

The root cause of the problem lies behind the dynamics of heavy-ion elastic scattering. We expect the features of the nuclear potential by the analysis of elastic studies. But strong absorption due the nuclear potential hides most of the features we wish to explore from easy investigation. There exists repulsion for projectile particles near the Coulomb barrier which is located at the surface of the nucleus. Once the projectile overcomes the Coulomb repulsion at the surface boundary, it can reach the highly attractive region inside the nucleus. Particles which enter the stronger parts of the nuclear potential are absorbed and never emerge. Therefore, we are unable to gather actual information about the nuclear potential. On the other hand, we obtain mostly those particles in elastic scattering experiments which are affected mainly by the strong Coulomb repulsion between a heavy ion and a nucleus. Only a very small fraction of the flux of elastically scattered particles carries information on the details of the nuclear potential. So this information bears on the potential only in a localized radial region. That’s why any derived potential which approximates the interaction in this region will give acceptable fits to elastic scattering data. As a result of which the nuclear potential is not uniquely described till date in spite of huge experimental data. 

The problem of ambiguity may be solved by choosing correct parameters of the suggested nuclear potentials. The parameters can be accurately determined by the elastic scattering, if the OMP is considered within a sensitive region. Thus the sensitive radial regions of the potential have to be located which region will be suitable for the analysis of scattering data. The sensitive region of OMP can be investigated by using the notch-perturbation method [1] [3], a reliable and simple technique possessing evident advantages. This method was successfully applied for an elastic collision system 14N+56Fe [4] to investigate the radial sensitivity in which 14N is a tightly-bound projectile upon the target 56Fe.

Conclusion

The number of phenomena occurring in our nature cannot be counted. We and even our devices are unable to detect them all. We have observed or sensed a few. Various theories help us analyse and understand natural phenomena. As of today, we deal with a huge number of laws to understand a few natural phenomena. Therefore, the number may not be imaginable in order to understand or explain all the phenomena. This may create ambiguity in future. Therefore, our endeavor must be in line to understand the universe with unified laws.  

Reference

1. J. G. Cramer and R. M. DeVries, Phys. Rev. C, 22: 91 (1980).
2. G. Igo, Phys. Rev. Lett., 1: 72 (1958).
3. F. Michel, J. Albinski, P. Belery et al., Phys. Rev. C, 28: 1904 (1983).
4. K. K. Jena, B. B. Sahu and S. K. Agarwalla, Proc. DAE Symp. on Nucl. Phys. 66 (2022).

Abstract

The European Organization of Nuclear Research (CERN) is having a statue of Nataraja at its headquarters. This paper analyses the scientific, mystic, as well as the historic meaning of this occurrence, that is, why such a spiritual symbol is placed at a place where deep rooted research involving subatomic particles takes place. For doing so, some literature pertaining to art-history and modern physics involving subatomic particles was consulted. It was observed that there exist a number of parallels between the observations of modern physics and Eastern mysticism. Finally, it turned out that for the modern physicists, Shiva’s dance is the dance of subatomic matter. The metaphor of the cosmic dance thus unifies ancient mythology, religious art, and modern physics. 

Keywords: Statue of Lord Shiva, CERN, Cosmic Dance, Subatomic Particles, Eastern Mysticism, Scientific Exploration, Creation and Destruction, Hadron Collider, Bubble Chamber, Rhythmic Pulse

Introduction

Twentieth century has seen some epoch-making developments in modern physics, specifically penetrating deep into the atomic structures of materials, identifying numbers of subatomic particles, and exploring their exotic world. During this period, precisely on 29 September 1954, ‘The European Organization for Nuclear Research’, (in French Conseil Européen pour la Recherche Nucléaire – CERN), was established. An intergovernmental (European Governments) organization, it stands at Meyrin, a western suburb of Geneva on the France – Switzerland border, and operates the largest particle physics laboratory in the world. CERN boasts of possessing the world’s largest and most complex scientific instruments, mostly particle accelerators and detectors, tailor-made to study subatomic particles in minute detail. Using these excellent facilities, the physicists and engineers of CERN have made, and are making, wonderful contributions to the field of the subatomic particle world, providing insights into the fundamental laws of nature. 

Here, it is worth mentioning another event that occurred at CERN approximately fifty years after its inception. On 8th June, 2004, a six feet tall Lord Nataraja idol was unveiled at its headquarters, just in front of the Director General’s office. We know that Lord Shiva is worshipped in India as one of the Trinity deities of Hinduism, and Lord Nataraja is his depiction as the divine cosmic dancer. Accordingly, on the base of this idol, “Adi Sankara’s sloka (56th sloka of Sivananda Lahari) is engraved in Sanskrit with English translation” (Raja 2017, 63). A special plaque is also placed next to the idol and explains the significance of the metaphor of Nataraja’s cosmic dance with several quotations from the book “The Tao of Physics” written by “Fritjof Capra, an Austrian born American Physicist” (63). Is it, then, a reality that modern advanced science has found its visual three-dimensional expression in Nataraja’s dance? Is it that science and spirituality meet here? And, is it that spirituality gives completeness and wholeness to science, and vice-versa? This paper makes an honest attempt to find answers to these questions. For this purpose, it makes an effort to analyze what the physicists like Capra have observed through their experimentations, and what the spiritualists have realized through their meditative experience.

The starting point has been chosen from the plaque placed near the Nataraja idol at CERN, where, Fritjof Capra explained that “Modern physics has shown that the rhythm of creation and destruction is not only manifest in the turn of the seasons and in the birth and death of all living creatures, but is also the very essence of inorganic matter,” and that “For the modern physicists, then, Shiva’s dance is the dance of subatomic particles.” Thus, there are three aspects that need a discussion here; one, elements of Nataraja’s dance; two, properties of subatomic particles of inorganic matter; and finally the relationship between the two. Obviously, the focal literature chosen here is the book The Tao of Physics (Capra 1975), and of course, supported by some other relevant literature.

Dance of Nataraja

Lord Nataraja, as mentioned above, is the depiction of Lord Shiva as the divine cosmic dancer; and has place of worship in India and the neighboring countries from time immemorial. The Natyashastra of Bharatmuni (2003), which was believed to be written approximately some 2000 years ago, mentions two Hindu deities to be “closely associated with the science of dance. Lord Siva is the primordial Nataraja (king of dancers) and Brahma is the author of Natya Veda” (10). Fritjof Capra, in his deliberations with the dance of Nataraja, has referred to two scholars, namely, Ananda Kentish Coomaraswamy (1877-1947) and Heinrich Robert Zimmer (1890-1943). The former was a Ceylonese metaphysician, historian and a philosopher of Indian art who was largely responsible for introducing ancient Indian art and culture to the West; and his essay The Dance of Shiva (1918) is on focal plane. In this essay, for interpretation, out of many dances of Shiva, Coomaraswamy has selected three dances; the first, the evening dance he performed in Himalayas with divine chorus; the second, his usual well-known dance of tandava; and the third, the Nadanta dance he performed before the assembly (sabha) in the golden hall of Chidambaram or Tillai, usually called the center of the Universe. Again, out of the three, in his own words, “only one of them alone forming the main subject of interpretation,” there is no doubt that it is the last one (56). Further, he cites – “—without reliance upon literary references, the interpretation of this dance would not be difficult. Fortunately, however, we have the assistance of a copious contemporary literature, which enables us to fully explain not only the general significance of the dance, but equally, the details of its concrete symbolism” (59). The later scholar, Heinrich Zimmer, was a German Indologist, linguist, and a historian of South Asian art, mostly known for his book, Myths and Symbols in Indian Art and Civilization (1990), which is also relevant here. ‘The Dance of Shiva’ forms one of seven sections of a chapter in the book, thoroughly analyzed on the basis of numbers of historical statues found at various places, and relevant literature including those of Coomaraswamy. 

Both these authors have dealt in detail about the dance of Nataraja, and Fritjof Capra has cited some statements from their work. To start with, it may be mentioned that, while Coomaraswamy refers to Nataraja as “Lord of Dancers, or, King of Actors” (1918, 56), Zimmer addresses him as “King of Dancers” (1990, 151). Zimmer mentions, “On a universal scale Shiva is the Cosmic Dancer in his Dancing Manifestation (nritya murti) he embodies in himself and simultaneously gives manifestation to Eternal Energy” (1990, 152); whereas, Coomaraswamy states, “How many various dances of Siva are known to his worshippers I cannot say. No doubt the root idea behind all of these dances is more or less one and the same, the manifestation of primal rhythmic energy” (1918, 56). 

Five Activities of Nataraja’s Dance

Zimmer states that “Shiva as the Cosmic Dancer is the embodiment and manifestation of eternal energy in its five activities (pancha kriya)” (1990, 154). Coomaraswamy, on the other hand, refers to the Saivas’ understanding of Nadanta dance – “Our Lord is the Dancer, who, like the heat latent in firewood, diffuses His power in mind and matter, and make them dance in their turn”, and then states that – “The dance, in fact, represents His five activities (Panchakritya)” (59). Of course, the five activities are the same, viz: (1) Shrishti (creation, evolution, pouring forth, or, unfolding), (2) Sthiti (preservation, maintenance, support), (3) Samhara (destruction, taking back, or, reabsorption), (4) Tirobhava (Concealment, veiling of, or, masking, illusion, or, display of Maya, and also, giving rest), (5) Anugraha (Favor, release, salvation, grace) (Coomaraswamy 1918, 59; Zimmer 1990, 154). In fact, these five activities are believed to be separately and respectively performed by deities Brahma, Vishnu, Rudra, Mahesvara, and Sadasiva. Coomaraswamy goes further to explain that “Creation arises from the drum: protection proceeds from the hand of hope: from fire proceeds destruction: the foot held aloft gives release” (1918, 59-60). All the five activities are “made manifest simultaneously with the pulse of every moment and in sequence through change of time” (Zimmer 1990, 155).

Coomaraswamy summarizes the whole interpretation of Siva’s dance to have three-fold essential significance: “First, it is the image of his Rhythmic Play as the Source of all movement within the Cosmos, which is Represented by the Arch: Secondly, the Purpose of his Dance is to Release the countless souls of men from the Snare of Illusion: Thirdly the Place of the Dance, Chidambaram, the Centre of the Universe, is within the Heart” (1918, 65). 

Modern Physics

At the beginning of the twentieth century, the physicists had two theories, namely, Newtonian mechanics and Maxwell’s electrodynamics, applied successfully to different physical phenomena. However, the first few decades of the twentieth century, specifically the two separate developments – that of relativity theory and of atomic physics – totally shattered the Newtonian world view. The main Newtonian concepts, such as, the notion of absolute space and time, the elementary solid particles, the strictly causal nature of physical phenomena, and the ideal of an objective description of nature, had limitations to be extended to the new domains of atomic physics. By then, we were already aware that the Newtonian model is valid only for objects consisting of a large number of atoms, and only for velocities which are small compared to the speed of light. When the first condition is not satisfied, then Newtonian mechanics is to be replaced by quantum theory; and when the second condition is not met, relativity theory is to be applied. Basically, these two replacements, so to speak, have come from the revolutionary thoughts of Albert Einstein, a scientist-par-excellence. In 1905, he published two papers, one his special theory of relativity, and the other was a novel way of looking at electromagnetic radiation which practically led the way to formulate the quantum theory, may be called the theory of atomic phenomena.

Beginning in the 1930s two further developments, one experimental and the other theoretical, took modern physics to altogether a different domain. The experimental techniques were refined to detect more and more subatomic particles, such that, by 1935, the number increased to six from three; by 1955, it became eighteen; and by 1975, it had been more than two hundred. This increase in number has strengthened one point that – none of these particles can be termed either ‘elementary’, or, ‘building block’. Further, the theoretical developments, on one side supported this view, and on the other brought out new ideas regarding the subatomic matters. By this time, the very strange dual property of matter and also of light, that each one is simultaneously matter as well as wave, have been accepted. The light quanta, which has given quantum theory its name, is already accepted as bona fide particles called photons, which are particles of a very special kind – mass-less, yet travel with the speed of light. Study of particles at this speed means relativity theory must be applied, and was applied. High-energy collisions of subatomic particles, affected in large sized particle accelerators, not only produced subatomic particles, but also helped study their properties, even taking pictures in the bubble chambers. It was observed that most of these subatomic particles created in these collisions, live for a very short time, and disintegrate again to protons, neutrons, and electrons. Relativity theory showed that – mass of a substance is nothing but energy, and energy is a dynamic quantity associated with activity and processes. Existence of anti-particle of every particle was observed, and also observed symmetry between these pairs. With availability of energy, pairs of such particles can be created; and they can also be reverted to energy by the reverse process of annihilation. Matter has appeared in these high-energy experiments as completely mutable. All particles can be transmuted into other particles; can be created from energy and can vanish into energy. 

Thus, in modern physics, the universe is experienced as a dynamic inseparable whole; the observer too is included within. In this experience, the traditional concepts of isolated objects, space and time, cause and effect are meaningless. “Such an experience, however, is very similar to Eastern mystics” – says Capra; and continues further to add that the theories, quantum and relativity, “combine to produce the most striking parallels to Eastern mysticism” (81). He clarifies that Eastern mysticism, here, means “the various schools in the religious philosophies of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Taoism” (81). We will present some of these parallels in the following lines.  

A basic oneness of the universe

The spiritual tradition and the practice of getting experience may be different in the various schools of thought; however, the basic elements of the world view developed in all these traditions are the same. The most important characteristic of the Eastern world view is that – all things and events are seen as inter-connected, interdependent, and inseparable parts of this cosmic whole; as different manifestations of the same ultimate reality. Now, Fritjof Capra states that – “The basic oneness of the universe is not only the central characteristic of the mystical experience, but is also one of the most important revelations of modern physics” (131). We can see what these revelations of modern physics are, and how they formulate the basic oneness of the universe. Basically, the interconnectedness of nature arises in quantum theory. Let us start with any ‘observed system’ which may consist of ‘observed particles’, and ‘observed phenomena’; the ‘observing system’ will include ‘experimental apparatus’, and ‘human observers’. The first point in quantum theory is that the observed systems are described in terms of probabilities. Then, since the subatomic particles are not stable, they disintegrate (or decay), and again, the same term ‘probability’ applies to the decay ‘time’, and decay ‘mode’. Thus, what quantum theory brings out are not ‘definite’ characters of the particles, rather, ‘probabilistic relations’ between the ‘particle(s)’ and ‘phenomena’, mostly available in terms of probabilistic dynamic patterns. Further, the ‘experimental setup, or measuring technique’ and the ‘human observers’ get merged into this ‘probabilistic relation’, as participators. Therefore, finally, quantum theory “has come to see the universe as an interconnected web of physical and mental relations whose parts are only defined through their connections to the whole” (141). Thus, ‘the unity of all things and events’ forms the first most significant parallel between Eastern mysticism and modern physics.

The universe is intrinsically dynamic 

This is the second most significant world view of Eastern mysticism. All the Indian philosophical texts, starting from Vedas, Upanishads to Bhagavad Gita, give an organic, growing and rhythmically moving picture of the universe where everything is fluid and ever-changing. The picture is similar with the other Eastern philosophies such as Buddhism and Taoism. Each of these philosophies views the universe as an inseparable web whose interconnections are dynamic and not static. Thus, the cosmic web is alive; it moves, grows, and changes continually. Modern physics, too, has come to conceive the universe as such a web of relations and has recognized that this web is intrinsically dynamic. In fact, both quantum and relativity theories have established that the properties of subatomic particles can only be understood in a dynamic context; in terms of movement, interaction and transformation. Not only with the smaller dimensions of subatomic particles, modern physics have also recognized the larger dimensions of stars and galaxies to be dynamic. They are continuously spinning, contracting, expanding, and even exploding. Actually, in this world, we deal with large, atomic, and nuclear dimensions; and in the case of the later, the particles move very fast. At this stage, once the relativity theory told us that mass is nothing but a form of energy, we had to change our view. Material is no more understood as consisting of some basic ‘stuff’; rather, it is a ‘bundle of energy,’ a part of a ‘dynamic pattern’ within the framework of space and time fused into a four-dimensional continuum. When we observe them, we don’t find any mater; we only observe dynamic patterns continually changing into one another. Thus, ‘the universe is intrinsically dynamic’ forms the second most significant parallel between Eastern mysticism and modern physics.

The unity of opposites

Usually, opposites are abstract concepts of our thought process, but well entrenched into our regular life such as, ‘good and bad’, ‘pleasure and pain’, ‘life and death’, ‘light and darkness’, ‘winning and losing’, ‘virtue and vice’, ‘male and female’ etc. We also realize that these are not absolute experiences, but are merely two sides of the same reality; extreme parts of a single whole. However, the awareness that all opposites are polars and, thus have unity, is seen by the Eastern spiritual tradition as one of the highest aims of man. Instead of trying to eliminate the bad ones, rather, an attempt made to maintain a dynamic balance between the good and bad ones is preferred. 

Now, we will have to see how modern physics views this. The examples of opposite concepts in atomic physics are: ‘force and matter’, ‘particles and waves’, ‘motion and rest’, ‘existence and non-existence’ etc. Probably the best example of unification of contradicting concepts is ‘particles and waves’ in atomic physics. This dual behavior is already discussed above. It may be mentioned that the waves associated with particles are not ‘real’ three-dimensional waves like ‘water waves’, or, ‘sound waves’, but are only ‘probability waves’; which are abstract mathematical quantities related to the probabilities of finding the particles at various places and with various properties. Here, ‘probability wave’ may apparently show unity of ‘particle and wave’, however, it throws out another pair of fundamental opposite concepts of ‘existence and non-existence’ of atomic reality. We cannot say that an atomic particle exists at a certain place, nor can we say that it does not exist. To show this parallel between atomic physics and Eastern mysticism, Capra brings out this statement – “In the words of Robert Oppenheimer, if we ask, for instance: Whether the electron’s position remains the same? Our answer is– ‘No’. Whether the electron’s position changes with time? Our answer is – ‘No’. Whether the electron is at rest? Our answer is – ‘No’. Whether it is in motion? Our answer is – ‘No’.” “Oppenheimer’s words thus seem to echo the words of the Upanishads: It moves. It moves not. It is far, and it is near. It is within all this, and it is outside of all this” (1975, 154). Probably, this example provides the best possible parallel.

All spatial and temporal specifications are relative 

The notion of space and time figure prominently, not only in our everyday life, but also in our understandings of nature, philosophy, and science. For example, formulation of each of the laws of physics requires the concepts of space and time. We know that our classical physics is based on a concept of space and time as absolute, separate, and independent of the material world. On the other hand, Eastern philosophy has always maintained that space and time are constructs of mind, and are like all other intellectual concepts; as relative, limited, and illusory. Then where is the parallelism? True, there is no parallelism here. However, the modern physicists believe that the modification in the concept of space and time brought out by relativity theory is one of the greatest evolutions in the history of modern physics, and it provides the parallelism. What, then, is the new concept of space and time in relativity theory? “It is based on the discovery that all space and time measurements are relative”(Capra 1975, 164). This, in fact, is the starting point of formulation of relativity theory. Then relativity theory showed that space is not three-dimensional and time is not a separate entity; both are intimately and inseparably connected to form a “four-dimensional continuum which is called ‘space-time’” (168). This unification of space and time may also be viewed as the unification of other basic concepts in the previous section of the unity of opposites; the only difference here is that space and time are not opposites, but kept unrelated so far in classical physics. Of course, the notions of space-time are based on experience; on scientific experiments in the case of the modern physicists, and on meditative experience of the Eastern mystics. Thus, the full meaning of space-time in relativistic physics turns out to be – “space and time are fully equivalent; they are unified into a four-dimensional continuum in which the particle interactions can stretch in any direction” (185). In conclusion, we can say that – “Eastern mysticism is liberation from time, in a way; the same may be said of relativistic physics” (187).

The void and form 

In the Eastern mystical view, the reality underlying all phenomena is beyond all forms and defies all description and specifications; therefore, often said to be formless, empty or void. The term Brahman used by Hindus in India, Sunyata used by Buddhists everywhere, and Tao used by Taoists in China; all represent void or emptiness. However, this emptiness should not be taken to be mere nothingness; rather, on the contrary, this void has an infinite creative potential. Now, the modern physicists have come up with a statement that “the void of Eastern mystics can easily be compared to the quantum field of subatomic physics”(Capra 1975, 212). Originally, the classical, mechanistic world view had the notion of solid as indestructible materials moving in the void. But, when quantum theory and relativity theory were combined to describe the force fields of subatomic particles through the ‘quantum field theories,’ the distinction between particles and the space (void) surrounding them lost its original sharpness and the ‘void’ is recognized as a dynamic quantity of paramount significance. It could be shown through numbers of experimental evidence that virtual particles can come into being spontaneously out of the void, and vanish again into the void, without any nucleon being present. According to field theory, events of that kind happen all the time. The vacuum is far from empty. On the contrary, it contains an unlimited number of particles which come into being and vanish without end. “Here then, is the closest parallel to the void of Eastern mysticism in modern physics. Like the Eastern void, the ‘physical vacuum’ – as it is called in field theory – is not a state of mere nothingness, but contains the potentiality for all forms of the particle world. These forms, in turn, are not independent physical entities but merely transient manifestations of the underlying void”(222-223). 

There are more parallels between the Eastern mystical experiences and experimental observations of modern physics, such as symmetries, patterns of change, and interpenetration; however, we stop here describing them and make a shift to the cosmic dance, which is our main theme and it is also another strong parallel. 

The Cosmic Dance Nataraja

Even before describing the cosmic dance of Nataraja in a specific chapter, Capra has mentioned that – “Through his dance, Shiva sustains the manifold phenomena in the world, unifying all things by immersing them in his rhythm and making them participate in the dance – a magnificent image of the dynamic unity of the universe” (1975, 191). The chapter The Cosmic Dance starts with what the modern physicists have gathered through the exploration of the subatomic world in the twentieth century. It has already shown that the subatomic particles are dynamic patterns, not isolated entities, but are integral parts of an inseparable network of interactions. These interactions involve a ceaseless flow of energy manifesting itself as the exchange of particles; a dynamic interplay in which particles are created and destroyed without end in a continual variation of energy patterns. “The whole universe is thus engaged in endless motion and activity; in a continual cosmic dance of energy”(225). 

These phenomena are observed, not only in the collision experiments of high-energy physics, but also occur naturally, yet more intensely all the time in the Earth’s atmosphere. A continual flow of energy is going through a great variety of particle patterns in a rhythmic dance of creation and destruction all the time. Capra cites many examples obtained from the high-energy collision experiments, and refers to the American physicist Kenneth William Ford who has constructed a complicated example of such a network involving the creation and destruction of eleven virtual particles in his book The World of Elementary Particles. He has also cited Ford’s comment – “Every proton occasionally goes through exactly this dance of creation and destruction” (1975, 240). Capra goes further – “Ford is not the only physicist to have used phrases like ‘dance of creation and destruction’ and ‘energy dance’. The ideas of rhythm and dance naturally come to mind —”(240). Again, modern physics has not only shown us that all matter, whether here on Earth or in outer space, is involved in a continual cosmic dance, but also has shown through field theory that, “each particle does indeed ‘perpetually sing its song’, producing rhythmic patterns of energy (the virtual particles) in ‘dense and subtle forms’”(242).

Now, Capra makes the comment that – “the metaphor of the cosmic dance has found it’s most profound and beautiful expression in Hinduism in the image of the dancing god Shiva. —. According to Hindu belief, all life is part of a great rhythmic process of creation and destruction, of death and rebirth, and Shiva’s dance symbolizes this eternal life-death rhythm which goes on in endless cycles” (242). To take the metaphor deeper, he has cited a long passage from Coomaraswamy – “In the night of Brahman, nature is inert, and cannot dance till Shiva wills it: He rises from his rapture, and dancing sends through inert matter pulsing waves of awakening sound, and lo! Matter also dances, appearing as a glory round about him. Dancing, He sustains its manifold phenomena. In the fullness of time, still dancing, He destroys all forms and names by fire and gives new rest. This is poetry, but nonetheless science”(242). This passage has all features and phenomena what Capra looks for – the creation starts with his dance, which means that he creates, he sends pulsing waves through inert matter that awakens sound, the matters also dance, through dancing he sustains all the phenomena, through dancing he also destroys all the forms, and gives new rest. To have the parallel, he shows that modern physics has also revealed that every sub-atomic particle not only performs an energy dance, but also is an energy dance; a pulsating process of creation and destruction. The patterns of this dance are an essential aspect of each particle’s nature and determine many of its properties. Further, not only matter, but also the void, participates in the cosmic dance, creating and destroying energy patterns without end. 

At the same time, Shiva reminds us that the manifold forms in the world are maya – not fundamental, but illusory and ever-changing – as he keeps creating and dissolving them in the ceaseless flow of his dance. This has relevance to the creation and destruction of virtual particles in subatomic physics. Capra is not just content with this reference to maya, he further quotes – “As Heinrich Zimmer has put it: ‘His gestures wild and full of grace, precipitate the cosmic illusion; his flying arms and legs and his swaying of torso produced – indeed, they are – the continuous creation-destruction of the universe, death exactly balancing birth, annihilation the end of every coming-forth’” (243). 

Capra’s conclusion of the chapter is – “For the modern physicists, then, Shiva’s dance is the dance of subatomic matter. –. The bubble-chamber photographs of interacting particles, which bear testimony to the continual rhythm of creation and destruction in the universe, are visual images of the dance of Shiva equaling those of the Indian artists’ beauty and profound significance. The metaphor of the cosmic dance thus unifies ancient mythology, religious art, and modern physics. It is indeed, as Coomaraswamy has said, ‘poetry, but nonetheless science’” (245).

Conclusion

In conclusion, two issues can be put forth. The first one is that – “The conception of physical things and phenomena as transient manifestations of an underlying fundamental entity is not only a basic element of quantum field theory, but also a basic element of the Eastern world view” (Capra 1975, 211). Scientists of high standing such as Einstein, as well as the Eastern mystics, are of the view that – this underlying entity is the only reality; all its phenomenal manifestations are transitory or illusory. The scientists are attempting to unify the various fields into a single fundamental field, called ‘unified field’ which would incorporate all physical phenomena. Capra makes a statement – “The Brahman of the Hindus, like the Dharmakaya of the Buddhists and the Tao of the Taoists, can be seen, perhaps, as the ultimate unified field from which spring not only the phenomena studied in physics, but all other phenomena as well”(211).

The other one is that, like a few questions are raised in the introduction, Capra has also raised some questions. Those are: is modern science merely rediscovering what the Eastern sagas discovered thousands of years ago? Should physicists abandon their scientific exploration and meditate? Can there be a mutual influence between science and mysticism, or, even a collaboration or synthesis? While answering these questions in negative, Capra has concluded that – “Neither is comprehended in the other, nor can either of them be reduced to the other, but both of them are necessary, supplementing one another for a fuller understanding of the world” (306).    

Reference

1. Bharatmuni. 2003. The Natya Sastra. (Translated into English by A Board of Scholars). Reprinted. Delhi: Sri Satguru Publications.
2. Capra, Fritjof. 1975. The Tao of Physics: An Exploration of the Parallels Between Modern Physics and Eastern Mysticism. Boulder: Shambhala.
3. Coomaraswamy, Ananda. 1918. The Dance of Siva: Fourteen Indian Essays. New York: The Sunwise Turn, Inc.
4. Raja, M. L., 2017. Swami Vivekananda and Modern Science. Kochi: Kurukshetra Prakasan.
5. Zimmer, Heinrich. 1990. Myths and Symbols in Indian Art and Civilization. Ed: Joseph Campbell. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited.

Abstract

The newly introduced fluid dynamics model explains the various motions of orbital bodies including the elliptical orbit therefore are more close to reality. The reported retrograde revolution of distant satellites is just not feasible in fluid dynamics analysis. The retrograde revolution is an erroneous characterisation of satellites when the orbital inclination is negative. The retrograde revolution of satellites with negative inclination appears when the observations are made close to the equatorial plane of the sun. However, an observation from directly above the orbit in the northern hemisphere reveals the reality that the so-called retrograde revolution of satellites is actually prograde. The paper discusses how the orbital planes of distance satellites (Ananke, Carme, Pasiphae, Sinope of Jupiter and Phoebe of Saturn) become negative where they are erroneously identified having retrograde revolution. 

Keyword: outer satellite, major planet, retrograde motion, negative inclination and linear oscillation.

Discussion

At present the axis of the earth is described to have its North Pole end pointing towards Polaris. This is simply a relative observation without relevance to dynamics. The relative description of the axis of the earth could be many by changing the relative reference of the celestial body. When the axis of the earth is characterised relative to the axis of the sun, a periodic oscillation of the axis of the earth is revealed [1]. This relative motion is important since it has direct relevance to the dynamics of interacting bodies. The earth with its extra nuclear space structure revolves within the extra nuclear space structure of the sun, therefore the periodic oscillation of the axis of the earth falls within the purview of the fluid dynamics. The rotating Earth has a flattened extra nuclear space structure and the tilting axis tilts the equatorial plane of the flattened extra nuclear space structure. Therefore, the oscillation of the axis of the earth makes linear oscillation of its space fluid of the equatorial belt in the direction perpendicular to the equatorial plane of the earth. The moon located in the equatorial belt of the earth’s extra nuclear space structure makes linear oscillation by the drag force of the space fluid. The amplitude of oscillation of the moon is less than the amplitude of oscillation of the space fluid due to inertia of mass. The period of oscillation matches with the period of revolution of the moon thereby resulting in an inclined orbit of the moon. The associated extra nuclear space structure of the earth is a compressible fluid with torsional flexibility. Hence, there is a phase-delay of the oscillation of space fluid with advancing distance from the earth. Due to this delay, the oscillation of satellites perpendicular to the equatorial plane is out of phase. It may so happen that when the inner satellites are in the northern hemisphere the outer satellites may remain in the southern hemisphere where the inclinations of orbital planes of outer satellites would become negative while that of inner satellites are positive. The phenomenon can be verified from a large number of satellites of Jupiter and Saturn, spreading over a greater range of distance. The Earthly characterisation retrograde revolution of four outermost moons of Jupiter (Ananke, Carme, Pasiphae and Sinope) and Phoebe, the outermost moon of Saturn are due to negative inclination of their orbital planes (Fig.1 & Fig.2).

Abstract

All planets have satellites as orbital bodies except for Mercury and Venus. No plausible reason is distinguishable from the existing dynamics of orbital bodies. Ultimately the phenomenon of having or not having orbital bodies is left to chance. There are more than 300 satellites natural satellites attached to different planets but interesting enough not a single satellite has an orbital body (say, sub-satellite). It is further interesting that more than 150 asteroids are known to have small companion moons, and some have two moons. Hence, one can’t attribute the mass factor of a celestial body for having an orbital body. It is seen the satellites don’t rotate with respect to their concerned planet. It is also seen the planets Mercury and Venus not having a satellite rotate slowly. Hence, one can infer that a non-rotating or slowly rotating celestial body can’t have an orbital body. The present orbital dynamics don’t have any bearing with the rotation of the celestial body; thereby it fails to predict the probability of having an orbital body. However, in the new fluid dynamics model a rotating celestial body has a spinning extra nuclear space structure that helps in changing the direction of centripetal velocity due to radial acceleration by gravity in tangential direction which enables conservation of angular momentum. An orbital body experiences centripetal force due to gravity and centrifugal force due to orbital motion. For stable orbital bodies the gravitational attraction is fully neutralised by the centrifugal force for which reasonable spinning velocity of space fluid is absolutely necessary. A non-rotating/ slowly-rotating celestial body can’t have an appropriate spinning velocity of its associated extra nuclear space structure, thereby the orbital bodies of a non-rotating celestial body experience a dominating gravity and is gravitated. It is for this reason the non-rotating or slowly rotating celestial bodies below a critical speed are not potent. The paper describes the fact with reference to a diagram.

Keywords: celestial body, satellite and sub-satellite, rotating and or slowly rotating, orbital motion and revolution.

Introduction

Evaluation of the speed of rotation of orbital bodies about their own axis is beyond the scope of dynamics; ultimately it is left to chance. Further, there is no connection between revolution and rotation. But it is noticed; the satellites of all planets have one rotation per revolution. How can we justify this remarkable matching?

The state of rotation of an orbital body is expressed relative to distant stars whose influence on the orbital body is negligible. The sun being the primary interacting body in the solar system, the rotation of the planet needs to be characterized relative to the sun. Similarly, the planet being the primary interacting body in a planet-system, the rotation of satellites of a planet need to be characterized relative to the planet. It is well known that one hemisphere of the moon is always visible from the earth. Remaining on the earth we do not see the other hemisphere of the moon. Hence the moon does not rotate relative to the earth i.e. one face of the moon is always facing towards earth. When the moon makes one revolution, it makes one epicycle rotation per revolution with respect to distant stars. The earth being the nucleus of the earth-moon system has the scope to explain how one given face of the moon locked up with the earth. The preferential gravity may prevail due to local mascon (mass concentration) on the earth-facing side of the moon. On the other hand, characterizing the rotational motion of the moon with respect to distant stars doesn’t help to justify why the moon makes one rotation per revolution with respect to distant stars without significant gravitational interaction with distant stars. The phenomenon of one rotation per revolution is common to all satellites in the solar system without any exception. Hence, it cannot be a coincidence.

At present, a celestial body having or not having an orbital body depends purely on chance. No definite answer is available as to why Mercury and Venus do not have a satellite when all other planets have? It is also seen, not a single satellite has an orbital body (sub-moon) [1] even when many asteroids have orbital bodies.

Discussion

Examining the facts of reality of the solar system, this author found a bearing that a non-rotating or slowly rotating celestial body is impotent to retain an orbital body. A rotating celestial body has a spinning extra nuclear space structure that influences the motions of the orbital body. Space is a physical medium unlike the Newtonian concept of empty space, therefore it has a role in the dynamics of the orbital body. The physical space is the interlinking medium among celestial bodies, therefore, plays a major role in the dynamics of orbital bodies. For a hypothetical celestial body of zero mass i.e. in the absence of gravity and the centrifugal force, the celestial body floats in the space fluid and moves with the space fluid, being suspended in it. But in reality an orbital body possesses mass and experiences both gravity and centrifugal force. Gravity of the central body causes the orbital body to produce centripetal acceleration and the centrifugal force produces centrifugal acceleration. But when centrifugal force becomes equal to gravity the celestial body floats in the space medium without centripetal or centrifugal acceleration. A floating celestial body experiences drag-force from the moving space medium which causes motion of the celestial body. The massive celestial body would require much longer time to approach the velocity of the moving space medium due to inertia of mass.

The rotating sun has a spinning extra nuclear space structure that produces orbital motion of planets. Likewise, the rotating planet with spinning extra nuclear structure produces the orbital motions of satellites. When the orbital body approaches the velocity of adjacent fluid, the relative velocity becomes zero thereby both drag force and resistance to motion become zero. A non-rotating celestial body has a non-spinning extra nuclear space structure. If the non-rotating celestial body has an orbital body then the orbital body will experience resistance to orbital motion from the stationary space fluid and would slow down the velocity of the orbital body. Under the reduced orbital velocity, gravity would dominate over the centrifugal force which would cause centripetal acceleration of the orbital body and ultimately would fall on to the central gravitating body in a spiral path. Hence, any non-rotating celestial body with non-spinning extra nuclear space structure is impotent in retaining an orbital body. The celestial bodies rotating at slow speed have a slowly spinning extra nuclear space structure that renders almost the same effect as the non-rotating celestial body. The non-rotating satellites with respect to their planet and slowly rotating Mercury and Venus don’t have an orbital body which establishes the fluid dynamics model of the solar system.

For a dominating gravity the orbital body would have centripetal acceleration and for dominating centrifugal force it would have centrifugal acceleration. When gravity is equal to centrifugal force the net acceleration in radial direction becomes zero under zero gravity condition. Mercury and Venus have slow rotation about their axes and all satellites don’t rotate with respect to their planet, therefore, the associated extra nuclear space structure does not spin. Thus, any external body captured by the non-rotating or slowly rotating orbital body would lose its speed in a non-spinning extra nuclear space structure and ultimately meet the central body by gravitation. It is for this reason they don’t have any orbital body. The effect of spinning and non-spinning extra nuclear space structure may be examined from the fuel consumption of artificial satellites in retaining the satellite in specific orbit while orbiting eastward and westward.

It is interesting to note that even some asteroids are potent in keeping orbital bodies of their own as they have appropriate rotational speed about their own axis. More than 150 asteroids are known to have a small companion moon (orbital body), and some have even two moons [2]. Table-1 shows the slow rotation period of Mercury and Venus for which they don’t have satellites. Table-2 shows the list of some asteroids that have an orbital body.

Table-1[3]
Planet Name	Rotation Period (hours)	Number of Satellites
Mercury	1407.5	0
Venus	5832.5	0
Earth	23.9	1
Mars	24.6	2
Jupiter	9.9	95
Saturn	10.7	146
Uranus	17.2	27
Neptune	16.1	14

 

Table-2[4], [5], [6], [7]
Asteroid Name	Rotational Period (Hours)	Moon Name	Year of Discovery	Discoverer(s)
243 Ida	4.63	Dactyl	1993	Galileo spacecraft team
45 Eugenia	5.70	Petit-Prince	1998	W. J. Merline et al.
87 Sylvia	5.18	Romulus	2001	M.E.Brown, J- L. Margot
107 Camilla	4.84	S/2001 (107) 1	2001	J. L. Margot et al.
22 Kalliope	4.15	Linus	2001	M. E. Brown, J- L. Margot
93 Minerva	6.00	Aegis	2009	F. Marchis et al.
379 Huenna	6.65	S/2003 (379) 1	2003	F. Marchis et al.
216 Kleopatra	5.38	Alexhelios	2008	F. Marchis et al.
762 Pulcova	5.84	S/2000 (762) 1	2000	W. J. Merline et al.
130 Elektra	5.22	S/2003 (130) 1	2003	W. J. Merline et al.
3749 Balam	2.80	S/2002 (3749)1	2002	J. C. Veillet
11351 Leucus	4.40	S/2003 (11251)	2003	Mauna Kea Team
121 Hermione	5.55	S/2002 (121) 1	2002	F. Marchis et al.
283 Emma	6.68	S/2003 (283) 1	2003	F. Marchis et al.
243 Lotis	5.28	S/2001 (243) 1	2001	W. J. Merline et al.

 

All satellites are seen to have one rotation per revolution. Different theories are proposed to justify this. The much talked about the 1:1 spin-orbit resonance for all satellites has the weakness that the synchronization at other whole number spin orbit ratios are also feasible. Thus, the feasibility of 1:2, 2:3, etc. cannot be ruled out. The fact that all satellites of all planets have a 1:1 spin-orbit ratio casts doubt on the existing hypothesis/theory. The invariant 1:1 spin-orbit ratio is feasible only when there is stronger attraction of the planet to a specific hemisphere of satellite where other spin-orbit ratios are ruled out.

The dynamics of rotation and the dynamics of revolution don’t have a visible bearing to establish one rotation per revolution. The satellites of a planet are housed in the extranuclear space structure of planets, thus having direct interaction with the planet. Therefore, it is necessary to express the rotation of satellites relative to their respective planet. Examining the rotation of the moon with respect to the earth, one given face of the moon remains always facing towards the earth implying the moon does not rotate with respect to the earth. This is not the case only for the moon of the earth. All satellites don’t rotate with respect to their planet. The features of the earth moon system are known in greater detail therefore the author has analysed the earth moon system for one rotation per revolution of the moon. If one face of the moon always faces the earth then one has to look for stronger preferential attraction from the earth facing hemisphere of the moon than that of the far side of the moon. Gravity is the only known interaction among celestial bodies. Stronger gravitational attraction implies greater mass concentrations on the earth facing hemisphere of the moon. We notice a large number of circular Maria on the earth facing hemisphere (Fig.1).

In this new concept, the sun-planet system is visualized in a different manner. The rotating planet with its flattened extra-nuclear space structures are housed within the spinning extra nuclear space structure of the sun (Fig.2). The planets are swept by the spinning extra nuclear space structure of the sun which results in the orbital motion of planets around the sun.  This makes all planets to revolve round the sun (orbit the sun) in the same direction as the direction of rotation of the sun. The planets with their flattened extra nuclear space structures when revolve within the spinning extra nuclear space structure of the sun, the flatten faces of the planet remain parallel to the spatial spinning velocity vectors of adjacent space fluid of the sun for minimum resistance. This makes the axis of the orbital body to remain close to perpendicular to the equatorial plane of the central body. All planets located within the spinning extra nuclear space structure of the sun have their axes close to normal to the equatorial plane of the sun as the stable equilibrium position.