Abstract

This paper continues the small reviews on consciousness, the focus still remaining on Hindu philosophy. It starts with the initiation of the enquiry in Vedic period, then consolidation of the same during Upanishadic period. Finally, a discussion is given on how various natures of consciousness like ontological, epistemological, psychological, and transcendental developed. The contributions of different Indian traditional thought systems, such as Nyaya, Vaisesika, Sankhys, Yoga, Purva-Mimansa, and Uttara-Mimansa (Advaita Vedanta) into these developments is highlighted. 

Keywords: Hindu Philosophy, Vedic Period, Upanishadic Period, Atman, Self-luminosity, Nature of Consciousness, Indian Traditional Thought Systems, Brahman.

Introduction

In continuation of the series of short reviews on consciousness to be published in this journal by this author, this paper follows the last article on the cosmology and evolution aspects related to consciousness according to Indian philosophy [Paramguru 2026]. The ancient Indian traditional philosophy still continues, as the present paper reports a discussion on how the Indian thoughts initiated the quest for the fundamental and universal reality, first during the Vedic period; then the Upanishads took up the thread of enquiry to consolidate what this ultimate reality is, during the Upanishadic period; and finally, a glimpse of build-up is provided showing how the six traditional schools of thought, namely, (i) The Nyaya, (ii) The Vaisesika, (iii) The Samkhya, (iv) The Yoga, (v) The Purva-Mimamsa, and (vi) The Uttara-Mimamsa or Vedanta have shaped the nature of consciousness. 

Initiation of the Enquiry During Vedic Period

Saksena, in his book Nature of Consciousness in Hindu Philosophy truly makes the statement: ‘Man, in his intellectual search for the nature of Reality starts with the conquest of the external world first, for as declared in the Katha-Upanisad, man, to begin with, looks outward because his senses are outgoing.*’ [1944, 13]. The reference under * leads to the first line of Katha-Upanisad 4.1., which reads in Sanskrit ‘पराञ्चि खानि व्यतृणत्स्वयम्भूस्तस्मात्पराङ् पश्यति नान्तरात्मन् ।‘, meaning – ‘The self-born has set the doors of the body to face outwards, therefore the soul of a man gazes outward and not at the Self within.’ Obviously, the author infers that the early thoughts of man were cosmic, rich with observations of the surrounding vastness and mystery of planets, seasons and everything those were more powerful than him, yet influenced him and his life very much. By that time, let us say, by the Rgvedic period, besides man, the entire atmosphere with plants, animals, minerals etc., were no less real than man himself, and hence, he must have engaged in discovering the essence of all of them. Saksena reports that this cosmic attitude is best described by the first line of the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, Shantipatha. 5.1.1., which reads in Sanskrit: ‘ॐ।पूर्णमदः पूर्णमिदं पूर्णात्पूर्णमुदच्यते।‘and its meaning in English is: ‘That is complete, this is complete, from the complete comes out the complete.’ [14] After all, man is also a part and parcel of this whole cosmos. There is another characteristic of Indian thought that the macrocosmic and the microcosmic are built with the same plan, therefore, each single microcosmic picture must have presented to man the same complete essence of the whole cosmos.

As human thought developed, reflection and emphasis replaced the initial bewilderment; man started looking into the inner forces, specifically to the principles underlying these forces. The questions of wherefrom such regulative forces surface and how they operate occupied the human thought, though it still remained cosmic. Here, mention may also be made about another characteristic of Indian thought that man is inherently no more important than any other animate being, and also, within man, no particular function is more fundamental than the others; therefore, neither man himself, nor any of his special features took the central stage of the enquiry. Further, the enquiry, even in this second stage, was nowhere near consciousness or mind; was solely directed at the specific functions of phenomena, specifically the moving power behind them, in case of both animate and inanimate. However, during this second stage of enquiry, besides the observations of various facts and happenings in nature, man looked into a concept, in Saksena’s own language: ‘a concept of a unitary principle or law, which is specially glorified in the Vedas by the name of “Rta”.’ [15]. “Rta” actually means a fundamental principle of cosmic, physical and moral order which regulates the universe. To clarify it in a better way, he cites Radhakrishnan [1923, 79] – ‘Everything that is ordered in the universe has Rta for its principle.’ [Saksena 1944, 15]. He continues further – ‘’Rta’ compels every animate and inanimate being to follow the law of its own existence. It commands winds to blow, waters to flow, and men to know.’ [16]. Here, the author connects this knowing in all its relatedness by man to the term ‘sam-bid’ which literally means ‘consciousness’.

While discussing what contributions have been made by Vedas towards understanding the nature of consciousness, Saksena makes it clear that no real metaphysical speculation emerged from Vedas. However, he states that Vedas have provided some basic unitary principles which have subsequently emerged as potential philosophy of consciousness [17]. He cites the famous Rg Vedic hymn of creation, also known as Nasadiya Sukta [Rig Veda, X. 129.], he picks up particularly the stanza 4 which reads in Sanskrit: ‘काम॒स्तदग्रे॒ सम॑वर्त॒ताधि॒ मन॑सो॒ रेत॑: प्रथ॒मं यदासी॑त्। स॒तो बन्धु॒मस॑ति॒ निर॑विन्दन्हृ॒दि प्र॒तीष्या॑ क॒वयो॑ मनी॒षा।‘, meaning: ‘In the beginning desire descended on it – that was the primal seed, born of the mind. The sages who have searched their hearts with wisdom know that which is, is kin to that which is not.’ This, in his own language reads: ‘then for the first time there arose Kamas which had the primeval germ of manasa within it. It adds significantly that the sagas searching in their hearts are discovered in non-being, the connecting bond of being.’ [17]. His interpretation is – ‘we can find here an embryonic suggestion for a future philosophy of consciousness’ [18]. Finally, he states: 

‘To conclude, we have in Vedas an elastic frame of the development of the later idealistic tendencies of the gradual discovery of a universal and an inner principle as the basic and the fundamental reality which finally culminates in the Upanisadic doctrine of the Absolute ‘Atman.’’ [Saksena 1944, 21].

Consolidation of the Enquiry During Upanishadic Period

The Upanishadic seers took up the issue from where Vedas left and developed it systematically into a complete philosophy. The starting point was perhaps the hymn of Rg Veda 1.164.37 which raised the vital questions on the nature of the self – ‘Ko’ham’ – ‘Who am I’? And ‘which is the Atman’? The Upanishadic seers pursued these questions through serious and strenuous meditations, and what came out became history [22]. The first Indian thought carrying a glimpse of the earliest metaphysics of consciousness is probably conveyed by Aitareya Aranyaka 2.3.2., the English translation of the entire text is provided:

‘There are herbs and trees and all that is animal, and he knows the Atman gradually develops in them. For in herbs and trees, sap only is seen but ‘citta’ is seen in animated beings. Among animated beings, again, the Atman develops gradually; and in man, again, the Atman develops gradually, for he is most endowed with ‘prjna’. He says what he has known, he sees what he has known, he knows what is to happen to-morrow, he knows the visible and invisible world, by means of the mortal he desires the immortal. Thus, is he endowed. With regard to other animals, hunger and thirst are a kind of understanding, but they do not say what they have known, they do not know what is to happen to-morrow, etc. They go so far and no further.’ [Saksena 1944, 23].

Clearly, we can find here a gradation of reality based on degrees of intelligence in plants, animals, and men. At this point, another vital question arises – what is the true nature of this Atman that gradually develops in plants, animals and men, and how does it develop gradually? Apparently, Chandogya Upanisad, hymn. 8.7.1 and Taittiriya Upanisad, hymns. 3.2-6 provide successive unfolding of the essence of Atman by following a physico-psychological methodology [24]. Let us have a look at the successive reflection of the nature of Atman according to Upanisadic observations in the following lines. 

In Rg Veda, Atman was believed to be a predominating form (rupa) of anything in general, whereas, in Upanisads it was given the exclusive status of the essential in man. Its own development follows a particular path (marga) through stages, which is deduced by using a physico-psychological methodology, instead of the ontological approach used earlier [24]. The first stage of progression of Atman in man was his body. Then the body, the person as a whole, was the essence of man. Details can be seen in Taittiriya Upanisad, hymn. 2.1., and Chandogya Upanisad, hymn. 8.7.4. However, very soon, it was realized that the body was perishable and cannot take the absolute highest position in man [25]. Next, prana, which is more subtle, less divisible, vitalizes the whole-body including sense-organs and hence termed life-giving, was declared as Atman. The cosmic parallel to this new truth of prana as Atman is vayu, and the concept called prana-vayu ever-affirmed the identity of the microcosm with the macrocosm. Details are available in Brihadaranyaka Upanisad, hymns. 2.3.6. and 6.1.7., and Chandogya Upanisad, hymn. 5.1.6. [25]. The next stage of progression of Atman in man was declared to be prajna, which is conceived as the meeting place of all functions including sense-organs, and is also something like mind, intellect and identical to prana. Details are available in Kaushitaki Upanisad, hymns. 3.2.3.7., 3.4.4.19., and Brihadaranyaka Upanisad, hymn. 2.1.16f.[26]. 

In the next stage of progression Atman reaches the level of an active subject of perception, where it is so independent and free that it can move from world to world, it assumes the level of an absolute and universal subject. Details are available in Brihadaranyaka Upanisad, hymns. 3.4.1f., 3.7.3ff., and 4.3.11ff., Kaushitaki Upanisad, hymns. 3.8f., Mundak Upanisad, hymns. 3.2.9., and Chandogya Upanisad, hymn. 2.21.4. [26]. The Atman concept after developing from gross to subtle, then from subtle to still more subtle, as found in these lines above, it finally ends with the concept of pure cit, supposed to be the last member of the psychological series. This Atman as the pure cit, or, pure consciousness is the fundamental and basic reality, exists independently by its own right and signs unconditionally as the svayam-jyotih. It is eternal and unconditional, never loses consciousness in reality even if it appears to lose as in case of deep sleep. Details are available in Aitareya Upanisad, hymn. 3.1.f. and Brhadaranyaka Upanisad, hymns. 3.4.2., 3.7.23., 3.8.11., 4.3.1.ff., 4.5.13., 4.8.23., and 4.8.11-15. [27-28]. This ultimate reality, or, absolute consciousness is beyond time, space, and causation, and reaches the stage of sat+cit+ananda. Aurobindo’s evolutionary vision published in the earlier issue is actually taken from this Upanisadic philosophy [Paramguru 2026, 166]. He describes that the being is like ‘sheets of consciousness’, called ‘koshas’ that covers the soul layer by layer like an onion, and the ‘koshas’ are – annamaya kosha (physical), prnamaya kosha (vital), manomaya kosha (mental), vijnanamaya kosha (super-mind), and anandamaya kosha (satcitananda). This is the gradual development of consciousness as Atman in man.

Now, we will proceed to examine the nature of consciousness. Here, we may cite a statement of Saksena: ‘We shall see how later on this ultimate and transcendental consciousness is either retained or entirely thrown over-board in the orthodox systems’ [1944, 29]. The orthodox systems refer to the traditional Indian philosophical thought systems, and therefore, let us discuss a bit about these systems before proceeding to narrate the nature of consciousness. Dasji indicates that the Indian philosophical thought systems are divided into two categories, astik, or, theist, or believers (mostly of Vedas) and nastik, or, atheist, or non-believers. There are six thought systems in each category, namely, Nyaya, Vaisheshik, Sankhya, Yoga, Purbamimansa, and Uttaramimansa in the first category; and Charvak, (four Buddhist) – Madhyamik, Yogachar, Sautrantik, Vaibhashik, and finally Jain in the second category [2010, 13-14]. According to Bhatt the former six schools are indicative of different paths of contemplation of reality, for example, when Nyaya is the school of logic dealing with theories of knowledge and justification, Vaisheshik analyzes reality in terms of atoms, properties and categories. When Sankhya follows a dualistic approach between Purusha (Self, or, Atman) and prakriti (matter), the Yogic school, though founded on the metaphysics of Sankhya, is the amalgamation of physical and mental practices, mostly to control the mind. When Purbamimansa concerns mostly with the ritualistic aspects, Uttaramimansa focuses on pure intellectual knowledge (jnana) [2020, 207-208]. These six schools enrich their knowledge base through dialogue-driven-debates amongst the scholars within or outside the school. The later six schools of thought are not based on Vedas. When the first one Charvac is mostly seen as an opposing system, the next four follow Buddhist views and the last one is based on Jaina thoughts.

The Ontological Nature of Consciousness 

From amongst the usual ontological questions related to consciousness, the Indian philosophy discusses, practically all possibilities, of consciousness being held as a substance, a quality, a movement; it may be unchanging and eternal, or, changing and momentary; may be pure, distinction-less, and isolated; may be eternally differentiated into distinctions of subject and object. When the Nihilists’ do not accept the existence of consciousness, the Carvacs accept its existence, but they say that consciousness is produced mechanically only through the conjunction of material substances. The Nyaya – Vaisheshika (N-V) view agrees with that of Carvacs as regards the existence of consciousness that it exists only when a suitable collocation of substances exist, otherwise it does not exist, and it is only an adventitious property (Agantuka dharma) of a substance. However, the N-V believes that it is a quality of a spiritual substance such as the soul, or, Atman, and inheres in it by the relation of Samavaya, which means an eternal and inseparable relationship. Further, it is produced and is destroyed. It should be mentioned that the substances involved in the manifestation of cognition or awareness are the external objects visayas, our external sense organs indriyas, the connecting link between the external senses and the cogniser, and finally, the agent, or, the cogniser the Atman. 

According to other authors similar observations have also been made. Raghunath Ghosh, Professor of Philosophy, while evaluating the ‘nature of consciousness in Nyaya-Vaisesika’ states that ‘Self, or Atman, is one of the nine substances accepted by the Vaisesika system of philosophy. Normally Self is admitted as the locus of cognition or consciousness (jnanadhikaranamatma)’ [2018, 36]. He continues further – ‘— that body is not the Self.’ [37], ‘— that sense organs are not Self.’ [40], ‘Mind cannot be compared with Self, —‘[40], commenting on Self being the locus of cognition, he says ‘— that such qualities are to be taken as incidental properties (agantuka dharma) of consciousness, but not the permanent one’ [41]. Though he says the Self is eternal, yet, since it exists in the human body, it is not clear whether it exists after the human body is destroyed [42]. College teacher of Sanskrit, Kakoli Chandra Mishra states that ‘(N)yaya initially disciplines the intellect through rational inquiry and valid cognition. Nyaya-Vaisesika subsequently integrates logic and ontology into a comprehensive philosophical synthesis. Vaisesika then advances toward increasingly subtle metaphysical principles that reduce visible multiplicity into hidden structures and unseen causal order’ [2026, 77].

Though Mimansa is not generally concerned with metaphysics, and hence may not be quite interested in consciousness, yet, has put its entry into the study of nature of consciousness through a significant statement on the self-revealing nature of consciousness. Saksena states that ‘According to Prabhakara Mimansa, every cognition is a ‘triputi sambit’, it involves (1) ‘Visaya sambit’, (2) ‘Aham sambit’, (3) ‘swa-sambit’ [1944, 61]. It means, like a lamp illumines simultaneously an object, itself, and its substrate – the wick; consciousness illumines simultaneously an external object – visaya, itself – swa, and its substrate – the Atman, or, Aham. The Mimansa view consciousness as an action of the soul, jnana karma, which produces jnatata, or, ‘cognisedness’ in the objects. Further, consciousness is not recognized synonymous with the self as done by the Vedantists, a distinction is always maintained between consciousness and self, their relationship being that of an agent and act. That way, the position of Mimansa is somewhere in-between the N-V and the Vedantist.   

According to the view of the Vedantist Sankara consciousness is ‘an eternal, pure, and un-objectified and distinction-less infinite-reality, or a theory of a transcendental and a foundational consciousness with no distinction of ego and non-ego’ [45]. The Sankhya-Yoga also holds a similar view that consciousness is eternal and inseparable from the Purusa. The first and the foremost point about consciousness is that the essence of reality must be its absoluteness and it should ever remain the same, unconditioned by time, space, and causality. Thus writes Saksena – ‘(T)his self-existing and pure consciousness has a double aspect of transcendental and empirical reality. Under the former, it is to be understood as one, universal, unchanging, inactive and distinction-less; while under the latter, as particular, changing, active, and full of distinctions’[68]. Other authors discussing the nature of consciousness according to Vedanta philosophy such as Bhatt [2020] and Francis [2023] have also presented similar views.

 The Epistemological Nature of Consciousness

Self-luminosity of consciousness, or, svatah prakasatva, which has a strong epistemological dimension, is one of the most important natures of consciousness in Hindu philosophy. Vedantists’ view is taken as the final one, which states that ‘consciousness, or, cognition, whenever it arises, is directly and immediately cognized along with the object cognized’ [Saksena 1944, 69]. It is unique in this sense that, at once, it becomes both the source as well as the principle of all revelations in the universe, both light and knowledge. So, to say, it is svayamsiddha, svayamjyotih and svaprakasa, and while manifesting, it illumines all objects and itself. While standing as eternal witness, the source, and the essence of all manifestation, it is unmodified, ever shining in its own light, and grasped in a unitary and direct intuition [103]. Besides the Vedantists of the Sankara school, the Yogacara Vijnanavadins, the Prabhakara school of Purva Mimansa, and the Sankhya-Yoga scholars follow similar views, with slight alternations here and there. 

However, the Nyayayikas hold the view that the cognition is cognized by a subsequent, or a later mental perception. In fact, in I perceive this, they see two cognitions, the original one is this, which they call vyavasaya, and it brings the contact between the cogniser and the object; whereas, the other one is I perceive, which they call secondary (subsequent) cognition anuvyavasaya, which brings the contact between him and the mind. Their viewpoint is that the first cognition apprehends the things; it does not apprehend the self. Further, they do not deny the latter cognition; they only hold that it appears subsequently. They strongly feel that consciousness is not self-cognised as believed by the Vedantists and Yogacaras, but is perceived by another cognition. Also, it is not known by inference as believed by Purva-Mimansas belonging to the school of Cumarila Bhatta.

At the end, after lots of arguments and counter arguments, apparently the Vedanists view holds that a unitary and undifferentiated consciousness exists, illumines itself and is the principle of illumination in all experience and knowledge. The verse number 34 of Chapter 13 of Bhagavat Gita probably gives an exact description of it. It reads in Sanskrit: यथा प्रकाशयत्येकः कृत्स्नं लोकमिमं रविः । क्षेत्रं क्षेत्री तथा कृत्स्नं प्रकाशयति भारत ॥ (In English: yathā prakāśayaty ekaḥ kṛtsnaṁ lokam imaṁ raviḥ. kṣetraṁ kṣetrī tathā kṛtsnaṁ prakāśayati bharata.) Its meaning: O son of Bharata, just as a single sun illuminates this entire universe, so does the soul (the knower of the field) illuminate the entire body (the field) with consciousness. The Upanisads such as: Brihadaranyaka. 4.3.7, and 4.3.14, Katha. 5.15., and Chandogya. 3.14.2. also provide similar views [71].

The Psychological Nature of Consciousness

Human psychology is a vital field of study since the man is borne in this universe. On one hand, we study through science/social science, how humans behave, think and feel; on the other, we study human perception, knowledge and consciousness through philosophy. The former, the contemporary psychology, is a well-developed field with western psychology dominating the scene. However, people find a lot of interest in the ancient Indian thought systems which may compliment and supplement the contemporary psychology. Interestingly, this has relevance to the study of consciousness. Romanian-born American philosopher Christian Coseru mentions – ‘Indian philosophy is host to a rich tradition of reflection about the nature of consciousness, that incorporates both causal theories of mental content and detailed phenomenological analyses of the structure and operations of consciousness and cognition’ [2016, 102-103]. The German psychologist Peter Sedimeier and the Indian philosopher Kunchapudi Srinivas, while looking at how do theories of cognition and consciousness in ancient Indian thought systems (specifically Sankhya and Yoga) relate to current Western theorizing and research, conclude that ‘(I)n this article we claim that ancient Indian theories of cognition have indeed something to offer mainstream Western psychology’ [2016, 13]. Two Indian ladies Vanshika Dobriyal and Laxmi Rawat Chauhan, while studying the difference between the human mind and consciousness in terms of Indian psychological theories, have observed ‘According to Indian psychology, the mind is characterized by constant modifications, including thoughts, emotions, and sensations, whereas in the Samkhya-Yoga school of thought, consciousness (Purusa) is perceived to be static. With such an approach, people are able to consider their mental processes as objects of observation rather than components of their identities’ [2026, 168].

The actual problem of psychological nature of consciousness lies in the self-consciousness, and Saksena shows how various Indian ‘theories of self-consciousness lead to the conclusion of a unitary and a distinction-less consciousness’ [1944, 104]. First, considering the opinions of all the seers in all the traditional Indian thought systems, it is shown that various theories of consciousness of self-merge which may be termed as: (i) self is perceived by ordinary mental perception like any other ordinary object, (ii) self is known by not perception but by inference (Nyaya), (iii) self is known by a higher and super-normal perception, and (iv) self is neither perceived as an object nor inferred, but we have an immediate intuition of it by the reason of its self-luminosity (by Vedanta and Sankhya-Yoga) [115]. The final solution comes from Vedanta and Sankhya-Yoga by recognizing two aspects of consciousness, one transcendental and the other empirical. This recognition is based on the Advaita distinction of the Atman, which is the eternal light, and the Jiva, which is the eternal consciousness limited by the organism (the sense-organs, Manasa and Antahkaran). The Jiva can be both the subject and the object, whereas the Atman is never the object of consciousness. However, it is significant to note that, in the case of the monist Advaita, Atman stands as the static consciousness, or the supreme reality, and Jiva (or, Avidya) is relegated as a lower principle of reality with the role of change and dynamism. In the case of the dualist, Purusa takes the role of Atman, whereas Prakriti assumes the role of Jiva.

The Transcendental Nature of Consciousness         

The final solution given in the last paragraph, in reality, is not the final solution. As Coseru puts it – ‘(D)rawing their inspiration from the Upanisads, Advaitins take the principle of self-luminosity to its logical conclusion’ [2016, 100]. He continues further – ‘(C)onsciousness is no longer just an attribute of the self —. The Advaita theory of consciousness rests on the claim that, ultimately, mind and world are an irreducibly singular reality, in which the ultimate principle of things (brahman) and the principle of individuation (atman) are one and same —‘[101]. Thus, the duality of the last paragraph is brought to a singularity and this singularity is the transcendental nature of consciousness.

Saksena provides the details about transcendental nature of consciousness [1944, 130-161]. After distinguishing between mind and consciousness based on Yoga Bhasya, he goes on describing how consciousness is transcendental. The first feature of transcendental consciousness is, of course, self-luminosity, svatahprakasatvo. The rest of the features are: it is pure, eternal and all pervading, it is uncaused, it is an un-differentiated and distinction-less unity, it is unaffected (asanga and kevala), its intellectual knowledge is beyond grasp, its existence is ascertained by the method of Adhyaropa, it is intelligible but not definable, its proof is that it is svayamsiddha, it is saccidananda, it is non-active Akarta, and its activity is in the form of inactivity of Lila. Thus, consciousness has a transcendental aspect which alone is its basic nature. Of course, there are many critics of this theory, yet, it stands straight as Brahmann for the Advatins and Purusa for the Sankhya-Yogis.    

Conclusions

This paper continued to describe consciousness according to Hindu philosophy from where it left in the earlier part. It touched upon the initiation of the enquiry in Vedic period and its consolidation in Upanishadic period. Then, it presented various natures of consciousness starting from ontological to epistemological to psychological and ending in transcendental nature of consciousness. Here, an attempt is also made to show how various Indian traditional thought schools contributed for its build-up. 

References

1. Bhatt, R. Krishnan. 2020, “Consciousness, An Indian Perspective: A Review.” Tathapi (UGC Care Journal) 19 (50): 205-211.
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3. Dasji, Swami, Satya, Prasad. 2010. Indian philosophy. Bhuj: Shree Swaminarayan Mandir.
4. Dobriyal, Vanshika and Chauhan, Laxmi, Rawat. 2026. “Consciousness and the human mind: An inquiry into Indian psychological thought.” Journal of Social Review and Development 5 (Special Issue 2): 166-171. DOI: https://doi.org/10.64171/JSRD.5.52.166-171
5. Francis, Willibald Vishal. 2023. “’Consciousness’ in Advaita Vedanta.” International Journal of Research in Humanities & Social Sciences 11 (07-July): 27-32.
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11. Sedimeier, Peter and Srinivas, Kunchapudi. 2016. “How Do Theories of Cognition and Consciousness in Ancient Indian Thought Systems Relate to Current Western Theorizing and Research?” Front. Psychol. 7:343. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00343.

Abstract 

 The atomic age presents unprecedented ethical dilemmas, where technological power threatens global annihilation. This abstract explores how the Bhagavad Gita offers timeless philosophical solutions to modern nuclear anxieties. By recontextualising the battlefield of Kurukshetra as the contemporary geopolitical landscape, the study applies the concept of Dharma (duty) to scientific and political responsibility. It examines Nishkama Karma (selfless action) as an ethical framework for scientists and policymakers, urging action divorced from personal ambition or destructive outcomes. Furthermore, the Gita’s vision of universal interconnectedness challenges the fragmented mindsets driving nuclear proliferation. Ultimately, this paper demonstrates that the Gita provides a robust moral compass, shifting the focus from existential dread to spiritual responsibility and global welfare.

 

Keywords: Bhagavad Gita, Nuclear ethics, Dharma, Nishkama Karma, Lokasangraha

 

Introduction

Before the 20th century, scientists viewed the universe through the lens of classical physics, believing that matter and energy were entirely separate, predictable, and continuous. In the 20th century, when scientists studied the tiny parts inside an atom, the new findings utterly changed the way we understand matter and energy. The subatomic discoveries revealed that the universe is governed by probability, duality, and matter-energy interconnection.

By learning how to split atoms, the researchers gained an incredible amount of nuclear power that brought both great benefits and major dangers as well. On the other hand, of course on the positive side, this technology taught us a way to make constant, reliable electricity without creating harmful carbon pollution. It also helped develop advanced medical tools that include the specialized scanning equipment and treatments that doctors use every day to save lives. The carbon-free clean power also created massive problems. It allowed nations to build incredibly destructive weapons that threaten the survival of all human life. In addition, it led to serious environmental damage, such as radioactive nuclear waste. Thus, the new power source created moral arguments about whether using nuclear power is truly right or wrong [1].

1. Robert Oppenheimer (1904–1967) was an American theoretical physicist best known as the father of the atomic bomb. During World War II, he served as the wartime director of the Los Alamos Laboratory in New Mexico. There, he led the Manhattan Project, the top-secret World War II research program tasked with developing nuclear arms. [2] 

The world’s first detonation of a nuclear weapon is known as the Trinity atomic test. It was conducted by the United States Army on July 16, 1945. It served as the climatic test for the Manhattan Project. Oppenheimer famously recalled a verse (Verse 32, Chapter 11) from the Bhagavad Gita after witnessing the Trinity atomic test, in which verse Lord Krishna reveals his cosmic form to Arjuna, declaring himself as Time, the destroyer of worlds. The exact Sanskrit text of that verse is: 

कालोऽस्मि लोकक्षयकृत्प्रवृद्धो लोकान्समाहर्तुमिह प्रवृत्तः |

ऋतेऽपि त्वां न भविष्यन्ति सर्वे येऽवस्थिताः प्रत्यनीकेषु योधाः || ३२ ||.

Here Kāla translates literally to “Time” but is often interpreted as “Death”. Oppenheimer recalled “I am become Death, the destroyer of worlds“. He highlighted the deep intersection between nuclear capabilities and ancient philosophical ethics. Bridging scientific power with spiritual wisdom offers a framework for identifying the primary drawbacks of nuclear physics and exploring how the Bhagavad Gita addresses these ethical and systemic lacunas. By quoting this scripture, Oppenheimer was showing that modern science and ancient spiritual wisdom are deeply connected, especially when it comes to the morals of how we use power. Combining these two ideas helps us understand the main dangers of nuclear energy and see how ancient teachings can fix the ethical gaps that science leaves behind. The problem with science alone is that Nuclear physics gives humanity massive power. However, science itself cannot tell us what is right or wrong. Science gives us the power of technology, but it cannot give us the morality to survive our own creations. The Bhagavad Gita is a philosophy about duty, righteousness, and the heavy consequences of our actions. It teaches that having immense power requires an equally immense sense of responsibility. Using this ancient wisdom allows us to look at nuclear threats not just as political or military issues, but as deep moral responsibilities where humanity must prefer life to destruction. We discuss in detail the drawbacks, ethical gaps, and philosophical solutions from the Bhagavad Gita in connection with nuclear physics.

 

Drawbacks And Ethical Lacunas of Nuclear Physics

 

(a) Engineering Our Own End

Nuclear physics powers both fission and fusion reactions. These reactions happen because of changes in the energy that holds atoms together. Turning these reactions into weapons created a massive danger. It means that a nuclear war would completely destroy both sides, i.e., the danger of mutually assured destruction (MAD). As more countries built nuclear weapons, the fate of the world was placed in human hands. Today, a single political mistake or military crisis could trigger a global catastrophe [3].

(b) Long-Lasting Threat of Nuclear Waste

Although nuclear energy yields high energy density without direct greenhouse gas emissions, yet it generates long-lived radioactive waste, including actinides and fission products. Storing old nuclear fuel requires deep underground vaults. These vaults must stay safe and steady for thousands of years. This timeline is much longer than any government or society has ever lasted. Accidents like Chernobyl and Fukushima show what happens when these storage systems fail. When they break, they leave behind dangerous radiation that poisons the environment for generations [4].

(c) Gap Between Science and Morality

Modern science focuses on understanding and changing the outside world. In ancient Indian philosophy, this type of external knowledge is called Apara Vidya. This approach helps us create new technologies very quickly. However, it often separates our physical discoveries from our sense of right and wrong. When science grows without ethical wisdom, our technology develops faster than our moral maturity. When this happens, the tools we build for progress can easily become instruments that accidentally destroy us [5]. 

 

Philosophical Solutions from the Bhagavad Gita

 

(a) Guide to Duty and Selfless Action

A major challenge for scientists and leaders is managing the unexpected consequences of their work. The Bhagavad Gita offers advice in Chapter 2, Verse 47:

कर्मण्यवाधिकारस्ते मा फलेषु कदाचन ।
मा कर्मफलहेतुर्भूर्मा ते सङ्गोऽस्त्वकर्मणि ॥

It says that you have a right to do your duty, but you should not worry about the results of your actions. For scientists, this means doing research without a selfish desire for power, fame, or military control. This selfless approach to work is called Nishkama Karma. Arjuna’s struggle on the battlefield is very similar to the moral doubts faced by atomic scientists. Both had to figure out how to do their duty (Svadharma) without letting fear or personal desires ruin their judgment. The Gita teaches that scientific progress must always be guided by moral righteousness (Dharma) [6].

 

(b) Science for the Welfare of All

To make sure technology helps people instead of putting them in danger, the Gita introduces the concept of the world as unity in Chapter 3, Verse 20:

कर्मणैव हि संसिद्धिमास्थिता जनकादयः ।
लोकसंग्रहमेवापि सम्पश्यन्कर्तुमर्हसि ॥

This word means acting for the welfare, protection, and unity of the world. Applying the feeling of Lokasangraha to nuclear physics changes the way we choose our scientific priorities. It means focusing on these main goals:

1. Safe Energy: Prioritizing safer nuclear technologies with peaceful fusion energy research that cannot be easily turned into weapons.
2. Helpful Applications: Redirecting nuclear power toward medicine like radiation therapy, agricultural sterilization, and green energy.
3. Global Safety: Establishing clear, international agreements to manage and store old nuclear waste safely.

 

(c) Combining Technical Skills with Moral Wisdom

तस्माच्छास्त्रं प्रमाणं ते कार्याकार्यव्यवस्थितौ ।

ज्ञात्वा शास्त्रविधानोक्तं कर्म कर्तुमिहार्हसि ॥

           This is stated in Chapter 16, Verse 24 of the Bhagavad Gita. This advises using broad frameworks of wisdom to discriminate right action from wrong action. The Gita advocates balancing empirical scientific knowledge (Apara Vidya) with spiritual self-realization and moral self-control (Para Vidya). In one hand, without Apara Vidya, the society lacks the tools to alleviate physical suffering, power cities, and solve material problems.
          On the other hand, without Para Vidya, powerful tools remain vulnerable to egoism, misuse, and ethical shortsightedness [7]. It is mandatory to balance material science and spiritual wisdom with smart minds and wise hearts.

Conclusion

The limitations of nuclear physics do not stem from the structure of the atomic nucleus itself, but from the moral framework guiding its application. The Bhagavad Gita offers an enduring roadmap for resolving these modern challenges. It advocates that technical power must always be directed by selfless duty (Nishkama Karma), and an unyielding commitment to global welfare (Lokasangraha). By aligning scientific capabilities with this ancient ethical wisdom, humanity can responsibly utilize atomic physics while protecting global stability.

References

1. International Atomic Energy Agency (2020), IAEA Energy Reports.
2. Bird, K., & Sherwin, M. J. (2005). American Prometheus: The triumph and tragedy of J. Robert Oppenheimer. Alfred A. Knopf.
3. Waltz, K. N., & Sagan, S. D. (2012). The spread of nuclear weapons: An enduring debate (3rd ed.). W. W. Norton & Company.
4. Shrader-Frechette, K. (2011). What will work: Fighting climate change with renewable energy, not nuclear power. Oxford University Press.
5. Radhakrishnan, S. (1948). The Bhagavadgita. George Allen & Unwin Ltd.
6. Muniapan, B. (2014). International Journal of Asian Business and Information Management, 5(2), 15-28.
7. Mukundananda, S. (2014). Bhagavad Gita: The song of God. Jagadguru Kripaluji Yog.

Abstract

In modern physics, a total of four quantum numbers are used to describe the electron configuration of an atom and the probable location of the atom’s electrons. Quantum numbers are also used to understand other characteristics of atoms, such as ionization energy and the atomic radius. The combination of all quantum numbers of all electrons in an atom is said to be described by a wave function that complies with the Schrödinger equation. Each electron in an atom has a unique set of quantum numbers. No one knows WHAT an electron is. The description that it is an excitation of – a ripple in the electric field – is as vague as the description of a field in QFT. It is said that a field is an invisible, continuous physical medium that stretches across all of space and time, and what we perceive as elementary particles are actually localized ripples, waves, or excitations in these underlying fields. Wherefrom the energy that creates the excitation or the ripples come? Since these fields are not visible, how do they count the number of these fields? They can only count the forces experienced by them. How do they know that it is not the same field? After all, different forces co-exist. 

We know that air creates ripples in water. We can also cause ripples in water by our hand or by throwing a stone at it. Does that make the ripples different based on the energy that created it? Or does water become different based on the energy that caused the ripples? Does the wave created by a stone become a stone (like matter field), that created by air, air (like force field) and that created by hand, a hand etc.  Or the water becomes three waters: air water, hand water and stone water? The wave is characterized by its wavelength, amplitude and frequency, and not by what created the wave. The Vedic science defines a field as the area of space where something exists and moves (क्षि॒ निवासग॒त्योः). It accepts only two types of fields (स्थूलसूक्ष्मविभागेन द्विधा क्षेत्रमवस्थितम् । कार्यषोडशकं स्थूलं सूक्ष्मं बुद्ध्यादिमात्रजम्।। विष्णुसंहिता ४.४ ।।). There is one external field that is the universe (जगत् – that which is ever moving), which is common to all and is a variant in space and time. The other is the infinite numbers of the internal world (जीव) that is unique to everyone, is invariant in space and time and is a pictorial world of information only. 

Conduction is the heat transfer via direct physical contact and molecular collisions or free electron movement within an object. Convection is the heat transfer through the macroscopic movement of fluids (gases and liquids). Heated fluid expands, becomes less dense, and rises, while cooler, denser fluid sinks to take its place, forming a circulation loop called a convection current. In the case of an electron, when excess energy accumulates (heated fluid expands), it jumps to higher shells (becomes less dense, and rises). When it loses energy (while cooler), it jumps to lower orbits (denser fluid sinks to take its place) forming a circulation loop called a convection current. In conduction, there is no bulk movement of the material itself that is driven by a temperature difference between hotter and cooler regions. Convection involves actual physical flow and mass transport of the substance and is driven by density differences caused by temperature changes. Electron physically moves from one proton to another due to charge difference. Thus, electricity flow is convection and not conduction.

Everything in the universe is perceived only during the transition of its states or emission and absorption of energy. Unless the energy interacts with our eyes, we will not see it. We know electricity is a physical phenomenon caused by the presence and movement of objects with an electric charge, typically involving the flow of electrons through a medium. Electric current is the steady flow of electric charge carriers (such as electrons) moving through a convective path like a wire, measured in amperes. Electricity (विद्युत) behaves like a fluid. It passes on heat in the form of vibration, which behaves like convection – not conduction. 

The energy radiated (अर्कः) by the proton in the nucleus (उक्थ) can go up to certain energy levels (पृष्ठ) only. Beyond that it loses energy and can’t go further. Hence, it reverts back to the nucleus. This reverting energy that moves towards the nucleus, is called electron (उर्कः). It is neither a particle nor stationary. Hence, the modern scientists are talking of probability, because they are searching blindfolded in a dark room for a black cat that is not there.

Though no two electrons can share the same combination of four quantum numbers, it is not due to the Pauli Exclusion Principle (called स्थानावरोध in Vedic science), but due to its spin as described later. Also, according to Coulomb’s law, the same charge repels. This is a wrong concept. If electrons repel each other, we will not get electricity. The wave-function is explained using a standing wave. But a standing wave requires two traveling waves of equal frequency, wavelength, and amplitude to travel through the same medium in opposite directions. While the electron can be one wave, what is the other wave to create the standing wave? Here is an attempt to reply to these questions from the Vedic principles. Also, expand the concept by incorporating some missing parameters concerning its dynamics.

Keywords: Quantum numbers, Wave-function, Principal Quantum number, Azimuthal quantum number, Magnetic quantum number, Spin quantum number, Electron, Spin, Standing wave, space quantization, Rydberg formula.

Introduction

A total of four quantum numbers are used to describe completely the movement and trajectories of each electron within an atom. However, in advanced physics, a fifth value – the Total Angular Momentum Quantum Number akin to strangeness in particle physics – is often used depending upon the context. In particle physics, strangeness characterizes subatomic particles (hadrons) containing strange quarks. The combination of all quantum numbers of all electrons in an atom is described by a wave function that complies with the Schrödinger equation. But a wave-function has no physical meaning. Why should it be squared to have a physical meaning? Further, mathematics is the science of accumulation and reduction of numbers, where number is a property of all substances by which we differentiate between similar (संख्या सर्वस्य भेदिका). Hence mathematics is possible only between physical objects. 

The concept behind quantum numbers developed based on atomic spectroscopy summarized in the Rydberg formula involving differences between two series of energies related by integer steps. The Bohr atomic model relied on a single quantum number. Sommerfeld added two more quantum numbers using space quantization in place of the quantized phase integrals to explain the Stark effect. The idea of space quantization was to quantize the electron’s orbital interaction with an external magnetic field.

Wolfgang Pauli’s solution to the Zeeman effect was to introduce another quantum number – spin – taking only two possible values. This would ultimately become the quantized values of the projection of spin, an intrinsic angular momentum quantum of the electron. The quantization in the Stern-Gerlach experiment was due to the magnetic moment associated with the electron spin rather than its orbital angular momentum. Pauli succeeded in developing the arguments for a spin quantum number without relying on classical models.

Wigner introduced isospin – the first internal quantum number unrelated to a symmetry in real spacetime. Yang developed a non-abelian gauge theory based on the conservation of the nuclear isospin quantum numbers. The tally of quantum numbers varies from system to system and has no universal answer. Hence these parameters must be found for each system to be analysed. A quantized system requires at least one quantum number.

The above classification is like describing the parts distinguishing each from the whole and how it behaves, even though the same principle can be used to describe the whole and all of its functions. Vedic science does it for the whole, which can be applied to all atoms and their electrons and objects created out of them. There is a misconception that the quantum world is only probabilistic and totally different from the deterministic macro world. This is because quantum physics is yet to answer – What an electron is except a vague answer – it is a fundamental subatomic particle with a negative electric charge? For those who shun superstition and understand science, both micro and macro worlds replicate each other (यद्ब्रह्माण्डे तत्पिण्डे – Charaka Samhita – Shareera Sthana). We need to understand how to correlate both. This is explained from the Vedic perspective with fresh interpretations not available in the open sources.

Literature Survey

For nearly a century, quantum numbers occupied an important position in Quantum Mechanics. All textbooks on Quantum Physics discuss these in great detail (Quantum Numbers, Mark Fox, University of Sheffield). But there are many question marks on it. Why should the electrons be singled out to describe its probabilistic position, while everything in the universe possesses these characteristics? The Vedas apply the same laws of Physics to both the macro and the micro worlds. Here is an attempt to explain the characteristics of the quantum numbers to cover everything at large.

Problem Definition

Quantum numbers are said to be a set of numerical values that act as an electron’s “address” in an atom. But it is incomplete without its spacetime position details except that it is around some undefined nucleus. The combination of all quantum numbers of all electrons in an atom is said to be described by a wave function that complies with the Schrödinger equation. But the wave-function itself is a mathematical object and has no physical significance. Mathematics is the quantitative aspect of physics only. It does not cover the whole of physics. There is more to physics than mathematics. A part does not define the whole like the leg of the elephant cannot be used to model the whole elephant. Why should it be squared to make it meaningful?

The orbitals are described by the analogy of a standing wave. A standing wave (or stationary wave) is generated when two identical traveling waves moving in opposite directions superpose (interfere) within a bounded medium. This interference traps the wave energy, creating a stationary pattern of alternating points with maximum oscillation and zero movement, which only can create the peaks and troughs and the nodes. While the electron can be one such wave, what is the other wave to create the standing wave? No one speaks about it.

The quantum numbers are said to describe the energy level, orbital shape, spatial orientation, and spin of the electron. Everything in the universe has these properties to varying extents. Hence, why single out electrons only and describe those using numbers? They use Hamiltonians, which is the total of potential and kinetic energies of a system. But how do you measure potential energy without converting it to kinetic energy? If only kinetic energy is measured, what about potential energy? Joule (J) is the energy used to apply a force of one newton over a distance of one meter (1 J = 1 N ⋅ m). How do you apply potential energy unless you treat it as weight? It can only be interpreted by a scientific interpretation of य॒मेन॑ द॒त्तं त्रि॒त ए॑नमायुन॒गिन्द्र॑ एणं प्रथ॒मो अध्य॑तिष्ठत्। ग॒न्ध॒र्वो अ॑स्य रश॒नाम॑गृभ्णा॒त्सूरा॒दश्वं॑ वसवो॒ निर॑तष्ट ॥ऋग्वेदः – १.१६३.२॥ (no text defines it properly).

The modern classification of particles based on spin is unscientific. The Vedic entanglement (Chhanda – छन्दः that gave mass to everything and regulates all interactions) covers both the worlds, and is not restricted to quantum states only. It describes five properties of matter (वस्तुधर्मः). Quantum spin is an intrinsic angular momentum. Inertia is a part of the properties of matter (वस्तुधर्मः) which is part of the fifth quantum number (Sanchari Bhaava – सञ्चारीभावः – it includes spin, momentum, acceleration and elasticity) – everything related to the motion of an object.

Methodology/Approach

कासीत्प्रमा प्रतिमा किं निदानमाज्यं किमासीत्परिधिः क आसीत्।

छन्दः किमासीत्प्रउगं किमुक्थं यद्देवा देवयजन्त विश्वे॥ ऋग्वेद १०-१३०-३ ॥

मा छन्दः । प्रमा छन्दः । प्रतिमा छन्दः । ऽ अस्रीवयश्छन्दः (अपस्र स्त्री – अश्रशब्दार्थे कोणे अपश्रशब्दवत्समासान्तभाक् – असँ गत्यदीप्त्यदान्नेषुँ – चतुरस्रशोभीत्यादि) । पङ्क्तिश्छन्दः । ऽउष्णिक्छन्दः । बृहती छन्दः । ऽअनुष्टुप्छन्दः । विराट्छन्दः । गायत्री छन्दः । त्रिष्टुप्छन्दः । जगती छन्दः॥ शुक्लयजुर्वेदः – १४.१८ ॥

व्यक्त्याकृतिजातयः तु पदार्थः ।। न्यायसूत्राणि – २.२.६८ ।। {सिद्धान्तसूत्रम्}

क्रियागुणवत्समवायिकारणमिति द्रव्यलक्षणम् ।। वैशेषिकसूत्रम् -१,१.१५ ।।

Objects (वस्तु) are a collective of its properties (गुणकूटो द्रव्यम् – गुण, धर्म, भाव समानार्थक). They are created when energy is confined and entangled with each other like threads are stitched (वयन) to create a cloth. Hence, objects are called Vayuna (वयुन). The amount of energy content (मात्रा) gives the object its relative spread (परिमाण – this is bigger or smaller than that), which is called mass (वयोनाध – नाध means spread), which is a class property (this is a mountain – that is a mole hill). The arrangement of energy layers (संस्था or अवयव-सन्निवेश-क्रम), gives it the name and form (नाम-रूप). It also generates a stress on its base, which is called weight (वय), which is an individual property. Kg, which is wrongly called the unit of mass, is really the weight of 1000 cc of pure water at 4 degrees centigrade.  These two determine the properties of objects. There are a total of 17 inherent and 7 emergent universal properties. Objects possess some of these properties. Since the properties describe the characteristic of objects, they are called Dharma (धर्मः). The objects (वस्तु – वसतीति) appear and behave differently according to the different combinations of these properties. Hence, they are called Bhava (भावः). These properties can be classified into three inherent (आत्मभावः) and two emergent (अनात्मभावः) types. These are now called quantum numbers. 

मा छन्दः is related to solids that are measurable by themselves. प्रमा छन्दः is its opposite – liquids and gases that are not measurable by themselves, but requires a container to be measured. प्रतिमा छन्दः is related to radiation that cannot be measured in isolation or otherwise, since they are ever mobile. We can measure their properties. But unlike solids and liquids, we can’t measure them fully, since they are moving continuously till absorbed and lose identity. अस्रीवयश्छन्दः is not localized like these three, but is spread out everywhere, which leads to the perception of objects confined by them.  

The perception of any object takes place in three ways: Its inherent individuality, its extensions through component parts and its specific constitution that makes it different from others as a class (द्रव्य विकास). These define its individuality, utility and class (व्यक्तिः–आकृतिः-जातिः). These three are inherent properties (आत्मभावः) of everything. The external perception of the object is related to its space-time position and its state of its motion. These are emergent properties (अनात्मभावः). These five can describe everything about every object – not just the electron.

अधिष्ठानं तथा कर्ता करणं च पृथग्विधम्।

विविधाश्च पृथक्चेष्टा दैवं चैवात्र पञ्चमम्॥ गीता १८-१४॥

शरीरवाङ्मनोभिर्यत्कर्म प्रारभते नरः ।

न्याय्यं वा विपरीतं वा पञ्चैते तस्य हेतवः॥ १८-१५॥

The base, the operator, the instrumentalities, energy content, and environmental effects are the agencies regulating all actions. Whether macro or micro, whether physical or mental or in speech form, whenever any operation is conducted, these five are the determinants to describe the final states of everything. Such states relating to the electron only, in a very restricted and misleading sense, are called quantum numbers in modern physics.

One example is the so-called quantum numbers (वस्तुधर्मः), which are responsible (हेतवः) for describing not only quantum systems, but also every object and every function – be they material (physical – कायिकम्), speech form (वाचिकम्) or mental functions (मानसिकम्). They are not four, but five (त्रयो अग्नयः. द्वे सोमौ – अग्निर्जागार तमयं सोम आह तवाहमस्मि सख्ये न्योकाः॥ ऋग्वेदः ५.४४.१५॥), as the totality can be described only in five ways (पञ्च वृता सङ्ख्या).

These are universally applicable – not specific to describe the trajectory and movement of an electron in an atom, but also everything in the universe that are conserved through its dynamics (एको बहूनां यो विदधाति कामान्). In fact, since the universe (जगत्) is all about motion (everything in it is ever moving – गच्छतीति जगत्), it can be described as the fundamental theory of motion – all about position and energy of everything.

The first three quantum numbers are principal (n), orbital angular momentum or azimuthal (l\, and magnetic (m) quantum numbers (आश्रयभावः, प्रयोजकभावः, स्थायीभावः). These are said to describe the size, shape, and orientation in space of the orbitals of an atom in a limited sense. Quantum spin is an intrinsic angular momentum, but is not the only mobile state of the object. The fourth (व्यञ्जकभावः) is the perception of objects due to confinement by space, time, and described by number, etc. Mass (वयोनाधः), weight (गुरुत्त्व) and dimension (विस्तारः) are part of the fourth quantum number (व्यञ्जकभावः).

Results & Discussion 

1. THE PRINCIPAL QUANTUM NUMBER (अधिष्ठानं or आश्रयभावः – उक्थम् – व्यक्तिः)

The property that describes the base, on which everything else rests and without which the object will not remain as it is (like the nucleus of an atom), is called Ashraya Bhavah (आश्रयभावः or अधिष्ठानम्). This is the principal quantum number. The Vedic entanglement (Chhanda – छन्दः) covers everything, and is not restricted to quantum states or prosody only.

Inertia (संस्कारः) is a part of the properties of matter (वस्तुधर्मः – so-called quantum numbers) which is part of the fifth quantum number (सञ्चारीभावः – it includes all mobile properties like spin, momentum, acceleration and elasticity). Momentum (दोषापनोदनम्), acceleration (अतिशयाधानम्) and elasticity (स्थितिस्थापकः called हीनाङ्गपूर्णत्तः) are parts of inertia, as they do not change unless some force is used to break the state of motion or rest. Spin (आवर्तः) is a subset of this fifth quantum number (सञ्चारीभावः).

Every object can be described by its characteristic base, shape and class as different from other classes (व्यक्त्याकृतिजातयः). In the case of electrons, the principal quantum number (n) is said to describe the most probable distance of the electrons from the nucleus arranged in shells starting from the ground state, or the lowest energy state. The nucleus is the base (आश्रयः) for the electron shells.

But what is an electron (उर्कः) and its shell (पृष्ठ्य)? Like the Sun, the proton radiates out energy (प्राणः). These energies radiate out as radiation (अर्कः,). Such radiation always moves in waves going up or down (तिरश्चीनो विततो रश्मिरेषामधः स्विदासी३दुपरि स्विदासी३त्। – ऋग्वेदः १०.१२९.५). The only difference is, like a magnet or a pulsar, the proton radiates from both its poles. This generates the spin (आवर्तः). Depending upon the energy level, the energy moves up to discrete levels and from there, it reverts due to spin reversal (भ्रमि). We see this in the case of convection (धर्त्र).

The point from which the radiation (अर्कः) reverts is called the shell (पृष्ठ्य or अशिति) and the returning radiation in waves is called the electron (उर्कः). These appear as the absorption and emission spectra. These two waves generate the standing wave. Often the quantum numbers are explained by likening it to the perturbations of standing waves.

To generate a wave, we need a source of disturbance (energy input) and a medium (for mechanical waves). The source transfers energy to the medium’s particles, causing them to oscillate – these particles then pass the energy to adjacent particles to propagate the disturbance. Standing waves are mechanical waves that require two waves with the same frequency and amplitude traveling in opposite directions within a constrained or bounded medium, allowing them to interfere constructively and destructively to generate peaks and nodes. But modern science does not explain how these standing waves are generated. If the electron returns (like in convection) as the wave, its energy can explain the standing wave, as there is a source (उक्थम्) and radiation returned from a shell (अशिति – रेतोधा आसन्महिमान आसन्त्स्वधा अवस्तात्प्रयतिः परस्तात्॥ – ऋग्वेदः १०.१२९.५). Thus, the Principal quantum number is the individual (व्यक्तिः) base (अधिष्ठानम्) part of the Ashraya Bhava (आश्रयभावः). Though the principal quantum number is said to have any value, nothing beyond n=7 has been observed. Vedic science restricts it to n=7 (सप्तलोकाः). 

The principal quantum number (n) corresponds to the electron orbits in the Bohr model and atomic energy levels in the Rydberg model. But for fixing the orbit, we must first fix the central point without which nothing can exist as a structure (उक्थम् – यतो उत्तिष्ठन्ति सर्वाणि भूतानि). Further, the number of radiations (अर्कः) that determine the number of electrons that return from the boundary (अशिति) depends not only upon the number of protons in the nucleus, but also the pulsation emitted by them. For this reason, the position of an electron can’t be predicted (it is not an independent particle and scientists are looking for it from the wrong direction), though the probability of finding an electron in a region can be predicted (because of the radiating proton).

Also, like pulsars, the protons pulsate in two opposite directions. This is because moving electric charge creates magnetic fields that are scattered all around within two poles. But electric charge flows in a straight line within the two poles. It is like a gas being released through a pipe. Once the gas comes out from the ends of the pipe, it turns its direction of flow, though it itself does not spin. That appears as the electron’s opposite spin directions. The protons and neutrons are bound states of quarks, which themselves are bound states of energy. What makes them bound to that locality? Vedic science calls the central point around which all energies are bound and from which the distances of the electron shells are measured, as the principal point called Adhisthanam (अधिष्ठानम्), which has ten characteristics not being discussed now. Since everything from the atom to the universe rests around one central point, it is called the principal base (आश्रयभावः) for that system.

विराट्छन्दस्तद्वाग्वरुणो देवता॥ ५ ॥ गायत्री छन्दः, तज्ज्जा, बृहस्पतिर्देवता ।। ६ ।। त्रिष्टुप्छन्दः, तद्धिरण्यम्, इन्द्रो देवता ॥ ७ ॥ जगती छन्दः, तद्द्यौः, प्रजापतिर्देवता ॥ ८ ॥ अनुष्टुप्छन्दः, तद्वायुः, मित्रा देवता ।। ९ ।। उष्णिहा छन्दः, तच्चक्षुः, पूषा देवता॥ १० ॥ पङ्क्तिश्छन्दः, तत्कृषिः, पर्जन्यो देवता॥ ११ ॥ बृहती छन्दः, तद्विश्वः, परमेष्ठी देवता ॥ १२ ॥

These describe the arrangement of energy within its confinement and should not be interpreted literally and will be discussed separately. Though only a point, the principal base may appear differently in different extensions, without essentially changing itself. It is like the Self in humans and animals and the central point of quarks in protons and neutrons. We can consider the Self as the equivalent of the principal base (नभ्य) for the human body.

2. AZIMUTHAL QUANTUM NUMBER (कर्ता or प्रयोजकभावः, ब्रह्म, प्राणः आकृतिः)

An electron shell is a broad energy level where electrons are expected to be found. An orbital is a specific region within that shell where an electron is most likely to be found. Multiple orbitals exist within a single shell. While the shell can hold multiple electrons (up to 8 in the second shell, 18 in the third, 32 in the fourth) depending on its principal quantum number, an individual orbital can hold a maximum of only two electrons.

The orbital angular momentum quantum number determines the shape (आकृतिः) of an orbital, and therefore the angular distribution. The number of angular nodes is equal to the value of the angular momentum quantum number. It is like our main limbs (two hands and two legs or four legs).

Azimuth is the horizontal angle or direction of a target from a central point or observer, measured in a 360-degree circle clockwise from true north, which is considered as 0 degrees for reference. It is like our hands and legs that are in different angular directions from the body. These are the instruments through which we perform measurable functions. Their arrangement describes our form (आकृतिः).

Since Vedic science treats the principal base as universal for everything, it is defined in four different ways, all meaning the same thing:

1. That which exists by itself naturally, while being instrumental for the existence of others (अधिकृत्य जगत्सर्वं वर्तते यत्स्वभावतः).
2. That which fills everything without being full itself (यद्विभर्ति जगत्सर्वं जगद्यन्न बिभर्ति हि).
3. That which generates a temporary confinement to confine and control energy while retaining self-identity, getting confined to hold and energize everything together inwardly (यत्स्वमायोपाधिशक्त्या जगदेतच्चराचरम्। सृष्ट्वा तदन्तरे विशात्तदन्तर्यामितया स्वयम्। स्थित्वा सञ्चार्यते सर्वमसङ्गत्वेन केवलम्).
4. The material and catalytic cause for the structure independent of others, but containing everything to project a separate identity (निमित्तत्वमुपादानत्त्वमात्मत्वं तथैवह। निराधारस्वभावत्त्वं सर्वाधारत्त्वमेव च। सर्वावभासकत्त्वं च यस्यास्ति सततं स्वतः। तमेवाधिष्ठानमित्यवदन्मुनीषिणः।). These appear as four sub-shells now called s, p, d, f. Though in modern classification, the alphabet continues in order for higher energy levels (g, h, i, k…), nothing has been physically found.

These letters come from early spectroscopy classifications of spectral lines from alkali metals: s = Sharp (spherical shape), p = Principal (dumbbell shape), d = Diffuse (cloverleaf/complex shape), Fundamental (multi-lobed complex shape), correspond to the azimuthal (angular momentum) quantum number. They hold a maximum of 2, 6, 10 and 14 numbers of electrons.

There are four orbitals called in an atomic structure following the principle: everything can be described in a four-fold way (चतुष्टयं वा इदं सर्वम्). In modern physics, these are not physical, but mathematical functions depicting the wave nature of electrons in an atom and are supposed to determine the shape of atomic orbitals. But in Vedic Physics, these are real and carry out specific functions relating to perception (अन्तःकरणम्). Being beyond quantum, they are not physically perceptible, but only inferred from their functions.

These subshells describe the periodic table, which is a tabular arrangement of all 118 known chemical elements ordered by increasing atomic number (the number of protons in an atom’s nucleus). It has 7 horizontal rows called periods and 18 vertical columns called groups. Elements in the same group share similar valence electron configurations and chemical properties. In the periodic table, metals are found on the left and centre of the table. These are typically shiny, malleable, ductile, and good conductors. Non-metals are found on the right side and include essential life-sustaining elements (carbon, nitrogen, oxygen) and halogens. Metalloids are found along the zigzag dividing line between metals and non-metals and exhibit intermediate properties. Noble Gases – are found in Group 18 on the far right.  These are unreactive gases with complete outer electron shells.

Since first period elements can contain only 2 electrons in their outermost sub-shells subshell, they have been arranged in the first period. Since the second and third period elements can contain maximum 8 (2+6) electrons in their outermost subshell – p subshell, they have been arranged in the second and third periods. Since fourth and fifth period elements can contain maximum 18 (2+6+10) electrons in their outermost subshell – d subshell, they have been arranged in the fourth and fifth periods. Since sixth and seventh period elements can contain a maximum 32 electrons in their outermost subshell – f subshell, they should have been arranged in the sixth and seventh periods. However, since that will be too long, the lanthanoids and actinoids are divided into s-block, p-block, d-block, and f-block and placed separately. Thus, the sixth and seventh periods contain 18 elements only. 

Since these determine the utility of the elements, they are called प्रयोजकभावः. These also describe the structure of the atomic orbital (आकृतिः). 

According to modern physics, the azimuthal quantum number (l) depicts the angular measurements in a spherical coordinate system, which represents the horizontal angle from a cardinal direction to depict the shape of the orbitals in an atom. But how does it function? While the Principal quantum number is a non-interactive point base, the so-called azimuthal quantum number is the prime functional base. Hence, in Vedic science, it is called the principal operator, which determines the utility value (कर्ता or प्रयोजकभावः).

If we compare the principal quantum number to the vital energy functioning through the respiratory system (उदानवायुः), the azimuthal quantum number is like the functional mechanism: सोमस्य त्वा द्युम्नेनाभिषिञ्चामि अग्नेस्तेजसा सूर्यस्य वर्चसा इन्द्रस्येन्द्रियेण मित्रावरुणयोर्वीर्येण मरुतामोजसा आपि तैत्तिरीय मन्त्रेण.

All life forms evolve inside the analog Conscious Sea that pervades everything like the electromagnetic field whose strength determines the nature of the atom that evolves inside a negatively charged magnetic sea. Structures form and perish – the sea is unaffected. It is like the natural sea that pervades coral, seaweed, and fish. Since it is analog like space and time and contains everything, it is called Brahman (Brhhattwaat – बृहत्त्वात् and Brhhanattwaat – बृंहणत्त्वात्) and Mahaan (महान् – सविकारात्प्रधानात्तु महत्तत्त्वं प्रजायते). Since it is present in the smallest of particles though imperceptible, by virtue of such temporary decoration (उपाधिः), it is called Anu (अणु). We are inside the sea, but being ignorant, are searching for the sea.

Something similar happens at the quantum level. Everything can be perceived directly (भावप्रत्यय) or inferred indirectly (उपायप्रत्यय) from direct observation of its effect (like time, which is inferred from the sequence of events). Those not directly perceptible belong to two different categories: quantum particles (देवाः) and beyond quantum (प्रकृतिलयाः). Perception occurs at the beyond quantum level.

When water flows from a higher position to lower down, if it faces an obstruction, it takes whatever channel is available and goes until its surface balance is maintained. On the other side (the side facing Earth), it acquires the shape of the Earth’s surface. It is like casting a die or using a mould to create a shape. Similarly, all impulses carried by the mind are mixed and presented through reflection by intellect (बुद्धिः) in the brain for comparison with memory (चित्त). These provide the organisms a strong sense of self-recognition and self-identity (अहङ्कारः – अहमिति ज्ञानं क्रियतेऽनेन), and play a significant role during their lifetime. They purposefully utilize physical laws to carry out their biological functions.

These four are responsible for all cognitive functions (kriyaa – क्रिया or Shakti – शक्तिः), and are the apparent consciousness (अन्तःकरणम् – kartaa – कर्ता, क्रियानुकुलकृतिवत्त्वम् or shaktimaan – शक्तिमान्). They are energy in various forms; hence, they do not die when the material body dies.

Chitta (चित्त) is the repository – hence memory – of all concepts received from our past experience (मनोबुद्ध्यहङ्कारचित्तं करणमान्तरम्। संशयो निश्चयो गर्बः स्मरणं विषया अमी). After the external impulse is compared with the data bank (memory – स्मृतिः – स्वात्माश्रितक्रियाजन्यसंस्कारजन्यज्ञानम्) of concepts, we cognize it as ‘I know this (the object) is like that (the concept)’ – जानाम्यहम्. That ‘Knower – ज्ञाता’ or ‘Observer’ – द्रष्टा is only a Witness (साक्षी) to these transactions. The four agencies: mind, intellect, memory, and Ego are beyond quantum. While five divisions of the vital energy (पञ्चप्राणाः) function from the principal base (अधिष्ठानम्), these four (\(n – 1\)) shape the nature of the interaction. These are the azimuthal quantum numbers that shape all actions.

3. Magnetic Quantum Number (करणं or स्थायीभावः, साम, अशिति, जाति)

The magnetic quantum number (\(m_{l}\) or \(m\)) is said to describe the orientation of the region in space occupied by an electron with respect to an applied magnetic field. In the macro sense, it includes the circulatory and other systems that function as fixed channels (like veins and arteries) and the full extent of the body that describes it as a species different from other species. These are the material causes that channelize the energy in fixed pathways in a compact manner to determine the various limits of growth and define the class of objects. Hence, they are called Sthayi Bhava (स्थायीभावः).

In quantum physics, the magnetic quantum number determines the number of orbitals and their orientation within a subshell. Consequently, its value depends on the orbital angular momentum quantum number.

Each wavefunction, with an allowed combination of the first three quantum number values describes an atomic orbital (actually, nucleus – आत्मभावः) and a particular spatial distribution for an electron (based on the nucleus – आकृति) like the vital circulatory systems. For a given set of quantum numbers, each principal shell has a fixed number of subshells, and each subshell has a fixed number of orbitals. Without these, the atom cannot be sustained. While the energy flows through them perpetually, they regulate the orientation of the system with reference to the body, which is oriented and aligned with the magnetic poles of Earth. They have values ranging from \(-l\) to \(l\) depending upon the north or south pole.

In the macro world, we find the energy flow in plants is bottom-up (ऊर्ध्वस्रोता). In animals and birds, it is in variously slanted directions (तिर्यक्स्रोता). They cannot mate facing each other in their natural position; they have to bend (तिर्यक्योनि). Only in humans, it is downwards (अर्वाक्स्रोता). These are due to this property.

The nature of Agni (अग्निः – अङ्गयन्ति अग्रिंजनं राियन्ति इति) is to enter objects and try to disperse the atoms and create an electric field. When they disperse, they create a void. Since nature avoids a vacuum, energy from outside the boundary rushes in to fill the void creating a magnetic field. This incoming energy that contracts and confines everything – thus forming structures – is called Soma (सोमः – सुरसवे). These two are the driving forces in the universe.

When they act from and towards the center of mass (हृद्य), it generates the strong nuclear interaction (अन्तर्यामः – आत्मस्पृद् – हृद्य – सहचरसम्बन्धः निबन्धन; स्वरूपप्राप्तिः). Hence, if you want to separate two objects like quarks, they become stronger, because an equal force rushes in to fill the void. The universe is electromagnetic (अग्निसोमात्मकं जगत् – बृहज्जाबालोपनिषत्). When Agni starts to separate atoms into further hadrons and leptons, it is called Aditya (आदित्यः – आदानां यन्ति – बृहदारण्यकोपनिषत्). That powers the stars when they fuse.

4. The Fourth Quantum Number (व्यञ्जकभावः – दैवम्)

The dynamics (spacetime evolution) of any quantum system are described by a quantum operator in the form of a Hamiltonian. The Hamiltonian is a mathematical “operator” (a set of instructions – a mathematical rule or entity that transforms one quantum state or wave function into another) that represents the total energy of a particle or system, which combines both kinetic and potential energies. When the Hamiltonian operator is applied to a quantum state, it yields the possible energy values (eigenvalues) of that state – how a system will change over time. But how do you measure the potential energy? It is impossible. Only kinetic energy can be measured due to its effects. Hence, the Hamiltonian is unscientific.

In quantum mechanics, we cannot calculate the arrival time of a particle in a detector. There is no time operator in quantum mechanics. This is one of the big gaps in quantum mechanics. But nothing exists outside of spacetime. Everything exists in a specific space and time. Further, the nucleus has a fixed measurable position, but the quantum numbers do not describe these. In Vedic science, this is described as the fourth quantum number – the environment that reveals the object (व्यञ्जकभावः).

The fourth (व्यञ्जकभावः) is the perception of objects due to confinement by space, time, and described by number, etc. Mass (वयोनाधः), weight (वय – गुरुत्त्व) and dimension (विस्तारः) are part of the fourth quantum number (व्यञ्जकभावः). We perceive objects only when the radiation (ज्योति) released by them or reflected by them reaches our eyes. This is a transformation in different units (मात्रा विकास). Our perception depends on the respective position depending upon space-time-position (दिग्-देश-काल). Without these, we cannot describe any object, including the electron. It limits our degrees of freedom; hence, it should be a quantum number. Since these are beyond our control, it is called Daiva (दैवम् – दैवात् नियतादागतम्) – providence.

5. The Fifth Quantum Number – Spin (सञ्चारीभावः – विविधाश्च पृथक्चेष्टा)

Spin (आवर्त) is a subset of the fifth quantum number (सञ्चारीभावः), which describes all types of motion of the object including momentum (दोषोन्नोदनम्), acceleration (अतिशयाधानम्), and elasticity (स्थितिस्थापकः called हीनाङ्गपूर्णत्तः). These are parts of inertia, as they do not change unless some force is used to break their state of rest (दोष) or uniform motion.

All materials exhibit magnetism to different degrees. Magnetism is said to be the force experienced in magnetic fields generated as a reaction to moving electric charges:

सोमः – सौति अमृतमिति। सुरसवे + “अस्मिन् तु सुहुसृपति

Their polarity determines electron spins (आवर्तः) – that allows materials to attract or repel each other.

It is said that the generation of spin generally refers to inducing a spin current (a flow of electron spins angular momentum without charge transfer) or orienting a system’s spins to a specific state. It is primarily achieved through spin-orbit coupling, spin pumping, or spin-rotation coupling, forming the basis for spintronics. One mechanism for generating and manipulating spin is passing an electric charge current through certain materials (like heavy metals or semiconductors like Platinum or Gallium Arsenide). The spin-orbit coupling naturally deflects spin-up and spin-down electrons in opposite directions.

According to Vedic science:

दिग्वक्रावाहिक वातानां निरुद्धो यत्र वा भवेत्। तत्र चित्रगतिर्वायुः चित्रको नाम जायते।

आवर्तगतिवेगाद्यास्तत्स्वरूपमिति स्मृतः। तत्समीपस्थवस्तूनां तद्वेगादपकर्षणम् । शक्तितन्त्र।

Energy flows in all directions. When it is restricted from moving freely and directed to flow in certain directions only (like smoke flowing through a tube or between the two poles of a magnet), after the restriction ends, it moves in restricted directions (usually downwards – दक्षिणः सरलावारिच्छन्दानुपरिक्षेषु। अपसव्यम्). Such curved energy flow is called Chitraka (चित्रक – चित्र चित्रीकरणे। कदाचिद्दर्शने।). The form of such energy flow is called Spin (आवर्त). The objects near such energy flow are also affected by it and are dragged along with it creating a transverse pure spin current without any external magnetic field (भ्रमि). This motion transfers angular momentum into an adjacent non-magnetic material, continuously injecting a pure spin current into the adjacent layer.

“त्रिताय त्वा, द्विताय त्वा, एकताय त्वा” यजु० १, २, ३ । (also शत० ब्रा० १,२, ३, १)।

The agency that consolidates the magnetic field (गन्धर्वः सोमरक्षकः) is called Gandharva (गन्धर्वः – गन्धा अदनने, अदं हिंसायाम्, अग्निषोमाभ्यामर्वति प्राप्नोतीति। अर्वगतौ + अण्). The nature of Agni (अग्निः) is to enter every object and try to disperse its content from within the confinement of solids (निबिडावयव – ध्रुव) and is called Ekata (एकत). All materials are charge neutral. Since Agni does not break the atomic bond, heating something expands it without any change in its charge.

The heat energy that flows (तरलावयव – धत्र) is called Dwita (द्वीत) or Vidyut (विद्युत्) or electricity – there is a flow of electrons, which requires a suitable conductor. That part of Agni which disperses the electric and magnetic fields where it is in a plasma state – a collection of ions and leptons without any conductor (विरलावयव – धरुण), is called Trita (त्रित) or Aditya (आदित्य – आदानां यन्ति).

Hence, whenever any object is heated sufficiently, it releases its signature electromagnetic spectrum in the above sequence. Every object heats up in a band. Take the water for example. Below 0 degree centigrade, it remains in one form as ice. From above zero degree to 100 degree centigrade, it remains as water. Above that, it transforms into steam. Similarly, when a piece of iron is heated, it does not start radiating till it reaches a certain level. After that it emits red to violate. Then it emits white light. Below zero degree and above 100 degrees centigrade, it has no other effect on water. It remains as it is. This explains the ultra-violate catastrophe. 

Every motion in the universe, be it macro or micro, takes place in four steps: 

1. क्रिया (Action/Movement) action starts due to either of the four factors: weight, fluidity, application of force or interaction (गुरुत्व, द्रवत्व, प्रयत्न संयोगजम्).
2. क्रियात् विभागः (Separation due to action): This leads to motion of the object from its position. 
3. विभागात् पूर्वसंयोग नाशः (Destruction of the previous connection): This leads to the decoupling of the object from its position.
4. ततो उत्तरसंयोगः (Then, the subsequent connection): Then the object couples to the next position in space. This chain continues due to inertia.

The above principle is applicable to everything that moves including radiation. Energy is quantized infinitely. It has no surface area. Hence, has imperceptible dimension (अणुपरिमाण).  Thus, it can move to the least possible distance in one step. This is now called the Planck scale. 

The energy which stops both Agni and Aditya (static energy) is called Yama (यम – यम उपरमे – यमो वै अवसानस्य इष्टि). Due to conservation laws, Agnim (अग्निः) generates an equal and opposite reaction (स्पर्शवद्द्रव्यसंयोगविशेषविरोधी, which was stolen by Newton as his third law), which starts from the other end (periphery अपशिति or पृष्ठ) and contracts everything to create structures. The Sun is one example of this.

यमेन दत्तं त्रित एनमायुनगिन्द्र एणं प्रथमो अध्यतिष्ठत्।

गन्धर्वो अस्य रशनामगृभ्णात्सूर्राद्विश्वं वसवो निरतष्ट॥ ऋग्वेदः – १.१६३.२॥

The agency which acts as a fuel to trigger sending out of the electromagnetic spectrum from a static position (नग) is called Indra (इन्द्र – प्राणां न्यत इन्द्रियेणैन्द्ध यद्वैन्द्ध तस्मादिन्ध इन्धो ह वै तमिन्द्र इत्याचक्षते परोऽक्षं – शतपथब्राह्मणम् ६.१.१.२). The expanding sphere of radiation is called Ashwa (अश्वम् – अशू व्याप्तौ सङ्घाते च). Without Indra, nothing in the universe will move (नेन्द्रादृते पवते धाम किञ्चन ॥ ऋग्वेदः ९/६९/६॥). Yama (static energy) controls the time period (आयु) before releasing it in select directions. For example, the core properties that define how magnets interact with their environment include polarity, directionality, inseparability of the poles, and concentrated strength: magnetic force is strongest at the poles and weakest in the middle of the magnet. These are controlled by Yama.

Once energy comes out of confinement, it spreads out picking up directionality. If it is released at two opposite ends like in a pulsar or a magnet, it creates spin. Spin is the rapid rotation of an object around its own internal axis, like a top or a planet. Precession is the secondary, slower wobble or circular motion of the entire spin axis when a force (torque) is applied. In other words, spin is the rotation itself, and precession is the wobbling of the axis of that rotation due to the gravitational effect of other bodies.

द्वाविंशदुत्तरशतवायुवर्गा इति ईरिताः। तेणवावर्तवातवर्गस्सप्तषष्टीतः स्मृतः।

आवर्तवायवस्तस्मिन्द्वाविंशति इति ईरिता। सप्तमश्चित्रको नाम वायुस्तेपणवति विनिर्मितः। वायुतत्त्वप्रकरणम्।

Motion is possible due to weight, fluidity, application of force or interaction with other bodies (गुरुत्त्वद्रवत्त्वप्रयत्नसंयोगजम् – प्रशस्तपादभाष्यम्). Of this, the last two require two bodies with force to interact. When energy moves a body as a whole (without entering inside it like Agni), it is called Vayu (वायु). Since space (आकाश) is inert, the other four states: solid, liquid, heat, and Vayu (पृथ्वी-अप्-तेज-वायु) can combine with each other in 10 different ways. They can all interact simultaneously, making for 11 types of interaction.

The participants of each interaction can behave as a container or a contained:

अथ वायोरेकादशपुरुषस्यैकादशस्त्रीकस्य, इति। प्रभ्राजमाना व्यवदाताः। याश्च वासुकेवैद्युताः। रजताः पुरुषाः श्यामाः। कपिला अतिलोहिताः। ऊर्ध्वा अवतन्ताश्च। वैद्यत इत्येकादश, इति। – तैत्तिरीयारण्यकम् १.९

This makes for a possible 121 types of interaction. The forces can act all at the same time, making for a total of 122 types of possible motions. Of these, the 67th type is called Spin (आवर्त). Spin could be of 22 types. The spin called Chitraka is the seventh of the lot. The spin of the Moon around the Earth is an integer spin. The Sun’s apparent motion in the two hemispheres is a half-integer spin. The spin of Mercury, Venus, Neptune, and the Pluto-Charon System are all different, and so on.

The Stern-Gerlach experiment only proves that electrons have spin-1/2. These have only two possible spin angular momentum values measured along any axis, (+hbar/2) or (-hbar/2). In the experiment, they fired silver atoms through a magnetic field and found that while an ordinary magnet could end up anywhere (depending on its strength and orientation), the atoms only showed up at two discrete spots. They concluded spin is an intrinsic property of all quantum particles – not just neutrons and electrons.

They used it as a way to categorize quantum particles, but they could not correlate it to macro-objects or find a suitable analogy. But the result is expected, as magnets have two opposite poles only to channelize the energy. And as explained earlier, the energy after being released from confinement spins.

Spin is not a function of loft and friction. Quantum spin is an intrinsic property of subatomic particles, a built-in angular momentum (आवर्तः) that every particle – with or without internal structures – carries from the moment it is created. It is one of the so-called quantum numbers (सञ्चारीभावः). Like inertia, you cannot speed it up or slow it down, though the direction of angular momentum can reverse during the transition between specific lattice vibrations – spin reversal.

Spin is one mobile property of the particle. Generation of spin generally refers to inducing a spin current, which is the application of energy or interaction with another body. Application of energy or interaction with another body also generates inertia; hence, that should form part of this quantum number.

Conclusion

Quantum numbers do not exhibit any exclusive quantum property. These are universal properties. It is incomplete. It does not include space-time-position, without which nothing can be described fully.

References

The following books were referred to while writing the essay. The references have been quoted, wherever they are used. However, the translations and interpretations are exclusively mine. 

1. Quantum Numbers, Mark Fox, University of Sheffield.
2. ORBITALS: QUANTUM NUMBERS (CHEMISTRY Book 4), by HIMANSHU GARG.
3. Rigveda.
4. Yajurveda.
5. Shrimat Bhagavat Gita.
6. Nirukta and Nighantu.
7. Nyaya sootram.
8. Prashastapada Bhashyam.

Abstract

Electricity, we use today, was invented in the eighteenth century. But there is evidence of electric battery in the treatise Agastya Samhita written about 3000 years back by the Vedic seer Maharishi Agastya. Description of production of electricity and its uses are found in this treatise. Based on the equipment and procedure explained in the book a battery was constructed which worked and produced electricity.

Keywords: Electricity, Agastya Samhita, Electric Battery, Cathode, Anode.

Introduction

Electricity today has become part and parcel of our life. It has not only become indispensable for our daily life; it is also one of the key infrastructures of the economy of almost all countries. The electricity, we use today, has been invented in the eighteenth century. The Italian physicist Alessandro Volta (1745 – 1827) invented the battery or electric cell which was the first equipment to supply electric voltage and current before the invention of generators. Volta put a number of copper and zinc discs alternatively one above the other and kept blotting paper soaked with sulphuric acid in between the discs. When he connected a wire between the bottom copper disc and top zinc disc, current started flowing in the wire. This was the first electric battery which brought a revolution in the world. Since then, there have been lot of developments in the battery, but the basic principle remains the same.

Abstract

Synchrotron radiation exhibits well-established polarization characteristics, including linear, circular, and elliptical polarization. The present paper proposes a reality-based structural interpretation of these polarization features within the author’s previously developed mass–space framework. In this framework, an electron possesses an extra-nuclear space structure containing space-matter particles, and progressive reduction of this structure with increasing velocity provides the basis for the emission of radiation. The present study extends this structural concept to charge polarization and proposes that the spatially asymmetric distribution of charge and mass within the emitted structures may produce directional polarization. Quasi-neutral compound photon structures are hypothesized to acquire preferential longitudinal orientation, providing a possible interpretation of linear polarization. At the boundary of the radiation beam, interaction with the surrounding structured space medium is further proposed to produce rotational motion, giving rise to circular or elliptical polarization depending on the symmetry of the internal structure. The proposed interpretation is intended as a conceptual physical hypothesis and requires further mathematical development and experimental verification.

Keywords: Synchrotron radiation, Linear polarization, Circular polarization, Elliptical polarization, Mass-space framework, Extra-nuclear space structure.

Introduction

Synchrotron radiation emitted by relativistic charged particles is characterized by strong polarization in addition to its broad spectrum and pronounced forward directionality. Classical electrodynamics and special relativity provide successful mathematical descriptions of these observed properties. The present study explores an alternative causal interpretation based on the physical structure of the radiating electron and the state of the emitted radiation.

The present work forms the second part of the author’s previously developed reality-based interpretation of synchrotron radiation. In the earlier work, an electron was proposed to possess an extra-nuclear space structure whose effective dimension and interaction cross-section progressively decrease with increasing velocity [1] [2]. A mathematical treatment of this structural reduction and its relationship with the dynamics of high-speed particles have been developed in the author’s earlier studies. The same concept was subsequently applied to synchrotron radiation, where progressive reduction of the electron’s extra-nuclear structure was proposed to expose and release space-matter particles from successively deeper regions of the structure.

The present paper extends this previously developed structural model to the polarization of synchrotron radiation. It considers charge polarization as a consequence of an asymmetric mass–space distribution and proposes that the emitted radiation may form quasi-neutral compound structures possessing residual directional charge and mass–space characteristics. Their preferential orientation during propagation is proposed to provide a possible structural basis for linear polarization. Further interaction of radiation structures at the boundary of the beam with the surrounding structured space medium is hypothesized to produce rotational motion, providing a possible interpretation of circular and elliptical polarization.

Charge Potential in the Mass–Space Framework 

The existence of electric charge as a property associated with matter, rather than as an independently existing physical entity, suggests that charge may be understood as a state property of matter within the mass–space integral system proposed in this framework. On this basis, a new concept of absolute charge potential is introduced in terms of the ratio of mass to the space holding by that mass:

Φ_c=m/s

where m represents mass and s represents the corresponding space holding of the mass. The quantity Φ_c is referred to here as the absolute charge potential of matter.

According to this framework, when matter within a given frame of reference maintains a uniform mass–space ratio, it is considered to be in mass–space equilibrium with respect to that frame. Since there is no spatial variation of the proposed charge potential, there is no potential difference to produce charge interaction within that local system. Matter therefore exhibits charge neutrality relative to its surrounding matter.

This concept also provides a basis for distinguishing between relative charge potential and absolute charge potential. Charge neutrality observed in one frame of reference need not imply that the absolute charge potential of the matter is zero. Rather, neutrality signifies that the matter and its surrounding environment are at the same charge-potential level within the considered frame.

For example, matter situated on the surface of the Earth may possess an absolute charge potential denoted by

Φ_cE=(m/s)_E

while matter situated on the surface of Jupiter may possess a different absolute charge potential,

Φ_cJ=(m/s)_J

Matter within each respective environment may remain charge-neutral because its charge potential is in equilibrium with the surrounding matter. However, if matter initially in the terrestrial environment is abruptly transferred to the Jovian environment, its original mass–space state may no longer correspond to the local equilibrium condition. The resulting difference between the charge potential of the transferred matter and that of its new surroundings can therefore produce charge activity until a new mass–space equilibrium is established.

For practical measurement, a relative charge-potential scale may be defined by assigning the equilibrium potential of a selected reference environment as zero. Thus, the Earth’s surface may be taken as the zero of a terrestrial relative charge-potential scale, while the surface of Jupiter may independently be taken as the zero of a Jovian relative scale. These two reference zeros do not necessarily represent the same absolute charge potential. In this sense, assigning zero charge potential to neutral matter is a consequence of the chosen relative scale rather than a statement that neutral matter possesses no absolute charge potential.

This distinction is analogous, within the present framework, to the distinction between an absolute state quantity and a reference-dependent potential difference. Charge neutrality is therefore interpreted as equality of charge potential between a system and its relevant surroundings, rather than as the absence of charge potential.

Electric Charge Potential

For a particle of mass m carrying electric charge q, the conventional specific electric charge is

σ_q=q/m.

For a specified value of specific charge, the conventional electric potential remains a separate physical quantity. In the present framework, however, the proposed charge potential is defined through the mass–space relation,

Φ_c=(m/s),

where s denotes the space holding of the mass. Equivalently, its reciprocal may be written as

s/m

representing the space holding per unit mass.

The proposed definition is intended to describe the state of matter through its mass–space organization, rather than to replace the conventional definition of electric potential used in electromagnetic theory. The quantity m/s is therefore introduced as a new theoretical measure of charge potential within the mass–space framework.

Thermal Charge Potential

The same mass–space concept is extended to the thermal domain. Temperature is conventionally used to characterize the thermal state of matter. In the present framework, temperature is interpreted as a manifestation of the charge-potential state associated with the mass–space organization of matter.

For a unit reference quantity, the thermal charge potential is represented by

Φ_t=t,

where t denotes temperature. Within the proposed framework,

t≡m/s,

so that temperature is interpreted as a measure of the mass–space state or thermal charge potential of the system.

Accordingly, the framework proposes that the same fundamental ratio,

Φ_c=m/s,

can be used as a generalized measure of state property across different domains of matter. At the microscopic scale, the manifestation of charge is identified primarily with electric phenomena, whereas at the finer micro-micro scale, including the domain associated with photons and other field-forming entities, the corresponding state is interpreted in terms of photonic or thermal charge potential.

Thus, the proposed framework seeks to establish a common mass–space basis for electric, photonic, thermal and celestial charge potentials. The intention is not to identify these phenomena as experimentally identical, but to propose that their respective state properties may be represented through a common underlying mass–space relation. The range of charge interactions may differ across domains because the lower limit of an interaction is constrained by the characteristic dimensions of the interacting structure, whereas the upper limit depends on the mass content of the nucleus. Consequently, the size of the extranuclear space structure is influenced by the range of mass–space interaction under the prevailing background conditions [3].

In microscopic particles, the nucleus contains a highly concentrated amount of mass within an extremely small region. Within the proposed mass–space framework, this high mass concentration defines the lower limit of the interaction range because the dimensions of the nucleus are many orders of magnitude smaller than those of macroscopic structures.

According to the proposed framework, the reduced dimensions of microscopic structures permit charge interactions over extremely short ranges that are not ordinarily observed in macroscopic bodies. Furthermore, if the strength of mass–space interaction follows an inverse-square dependence, the interaction strength may increase significantly as the characteristic dimensions of the interacting domain decrease. Each transition to a finer structural domain may therefore involve a corresponding change in both the range and the strength of the interaction.

This framework provides a possible explanation for why interactions associated with particles from different domains appear fundamentally different. However, within the present theory, these differences are interpreted as domain-dependent manifestations of a common mass–space interaction rather than as evidence that the interactions are already established to be identical in conventional physics. In the present framework, charge interaction is interpreted as a manifestation of mass–space interaction, with charge characterised in terms of the mass and space parameters associated with matter [4]. Thus, the proposed invariance of the underlying mass–space interaction provides a common basis for interpreting the range and strength of charge interactions across different domains.

Mass–Space Equilibrium and Charge Neutrality

Within this framework, matter at every scale and in any domain is regarded as a mass–space integral system [3]. In its natural state, a system tends toward mass–space equilibrium with its surrounding matter. Under equilibrium conditions, the charge potential of the system and its surroundings is equal within the relevant domain, and the system consequently exhibits charge neutrality [4].

A macroscopic body may contain structures belonging to several domains simultaneously. Each domain may establish its own mass–space equilibrium while remaining coupled to the other coexisting structures. Consequently, equilibrium at the macroscopic level does not necessarily imply the absence of internal differences in the state properties of the constituent domains.

Any displacement of matter from its equilibrium condition produces a change in its mass–space state relative to its surroundings. Within the proposed framework, this change is interpreted as a change in charge state. The subsequent tendency toward restoration of mass–space equilibrium constitutes the fundamental mechanism associated with the release or absorption of energy.

Charge neutralization involves recombination or interaction with particles having opposite charge characteristics. When the opposing charges are equal in magnitude, complete charge neutralization can occur by their union at the corresponding domain level. When they are not equal, complete restoration of the neutral state may require participation from structures belonging to a finer domain.

In the mass–space interpretation, mass-rich structures are associated with positive charge characteristics, whereas space-rich structures are associated with negative charge characteristics [5]. Complete restoration of mass–space equilibrium therefore requires compensation between mass-rich and space-rich components across the relevant domains.

An important consequence of this interpretation is that macroscopic charge neutrality does not necessarily imply the complete absence of an underlying charge signature. A particle may appear electrically neutral at one observational scale while retaining internal mass–space asymmetries that are compensated through finer-domain structures. Thus, within the proposed framework, a neutral microscopic particle may still carry an underlying signature of its constituent charge states, even though its net observable charge is zero.

Similarity between charge activity and thermal activity

There is a useful analogy between electrical charge activity and thermal activity; however, at this stage, it may not be appropriate to state that they originate from the same physical phenomenon. In established physics, they are treated as distinct physical phenomena, although both can be described in terms of gradients, potentials, transport, and equilibrium.

Existing similarity between charge activity and thermal activity

Electrical activity	Thermal activity	Common feature
Electric potential difference ΔV	Temperature difference ΔT	Driving potential difference
Electric field E=-∇V	Temperature gradient ∇T	Spatial gradient
Electric current I	Heat flow Q̇	Transport process
Electrical resistance R	Thermal resistance Rth	Opposition to transport
Charge equilibrium	Thermal equilibrium	No net macroscopic flow
Conductivity σ	Thermal conductivity k	Material-dependent transport property

The observed structural similarity between charge activity and thermal activity suggests the possibility of investigating whether a more fundamental physical state variable can provide a common basis for understanding both types of activity. Within the present framework, the proposed description of mass in terms of a photonic mass unit, charge in terms of a photonic charge unit [6], and matter as a mass–space structure containing a nucleus and an associated extra-nuclear space structure provides a possible basis for developing a unified description of the micro and micro–micro domains [7].

Furthermore, the proposed atomic structure, including its extra-nuclear space structure, space-matter particles, and orbital particles or bodies, is considered to exhibit structural features that may be comparable, at a conceptual level, with those observed in larger gravitational systems such as the Solar System. If such structural correspondence can be established quantitatively, it may provide a basis for examining possible connections between the macro, micro and micro–micro domains.

From this perspective, the domain-specific laws currently used in physics may be regarded as descriptions developed for particular scales and classes of observable phenomena. The present framework proposes that these apparent domain distinctions may arise from differences in scale, structure, and interaction conditions rather than necessarily representing fundamentally unrelated physical principles. The underlying uniformity of structure and interaction, when supported by theoretical derivation and experimental evidence, could therefore provide a deeper basis for connecting phenomena across different domains of nature.

The structural mechanism proposed in the present paper is an extension of the author’s previously developed mass–space model of particle dynamics. In earlier work, the author proposed that an accelerated charged particle possesses an extra-nuclear space structure whose effective dimension and interaction cross-section progressively decrease with increasing velocity as a consequence of interaction with the structured space medium. A mathematical formulation of this velocity-dependent structural reduction was developed and shown to lead to a corresponding reduction in the effective interaction cross-section. The same structural concept was subsequently applied to synchrotron radiation, where progressive reduction of the electron’s extra-nuclear structure was proposed to expose successively deeper regions containing space-matter particles and thereby influence the energy and directional characteristics of the emitted radiation. The present paper extends this previously developed framework to examine the charge-polarization state of the remaining structure and its possible relationship with the polarization characteristics of synchrotron radiation.

Cause of Charge Polarization in a Charged Particle

Electric charge is a recognized phenomenon associated with microscopic particles. However, the present author has attempted to identify a possible replica of charge activity in other domains of nature by exploring the possibility of a common basic cause underlying charge in matter. If the fundamental cause remains the same, charge-related interactions in different domains may appear different in their range and strength because of differences in the geometrical mass-space configuration characteristic of each domain and scale. Such domain-specific differences may have led to the recognition of alternative explanations for non-electric charge-related phenomena in nature, thereby obscuring the possibility of a common underlying physical basis. The present approach therefore explores whether such apparently different phenomena can be interpreted within a more unified framework.

According to the proposed model, an electron accelerated to progressively higher velocities successively lose a portion of its extra-nuclear space structure. As the velocity approaches the velocity of light, only a small fraction of the original extra-nuclear space structure is considered to remain associated with the nucleus. The space structure closer to the nucleus is proposed to possess photonic charge-polarized shell features, analogous in a conceptual sense to the polarized atmospheric structure of the Earth (Fig.1), in which charged layers of the ionosphere occur in an organized spatial configuration.

Abstract

Synchrotron radiation is characterized by high brightness, a broad continuous spectrum, strong polarization, and pronounced forward collimation at high electron velocities. The present paper proposes a reality-based conceptual interpretation of these characteristics based on a structured mass–space structural model of the electron except the polarization phenomena which is dealt in part- II of this paper. In this framework, the electron possesses an extra-nuclear space structure containing space-matter particles identified as photons. As the electron is increasingly accelerated, its extra-nuclear structure is proposed to undergo progressive deformation and size reduction, releasing particles from successively deeper regions. The changing spatial state of the released particles is proposed to account for the increase in photon energy and the observed changes in the radiation spectrum. The reduction in the emission region, together with increasing longitudinal dominance over transverse dispersion and the proposed increase in particle momentum, provides a physical interpretation of the progressive narrowing of the synchrotron radiation beam. A mathematical analysis of the reduction in the extra-nuclear structure is presented, yielding a velocity-dependent expression consistent with the corresponding relativistic expression while arising from a different physical interpretation. The proposed framework therefore provides an alternative conceptual basis for relating electron velocity, structural reduction, photon energy, radiation intensity and beam collimation.

Keywords: Synchrotron radiation, Extra-nuclear space structure, Space-matter particles, Beam collimation, Photon energy, Structural dynamics. 

Introduction

Synchrotron radiation is electromagnetic radiation emitted by relativistic charged particles, particularly electrons, when their trajectories are curved by an external magnetic field. The continuous change in the direction of velocity produces centripetal acceleration, causing the electrons to lose energy through electromagnetic radiation.

At low velocities, radiation is emitted over a relatively broad range of directions. As the electron velocity approaches the speed of light, however, the radiation becomes concentrated around the instantaneous direction of motion within a narrow forward cone whose characteristic angular width is approximately (1), where () is the Lorentz factor. This relativistic beaming is a well-established experimental feature of synchrotron radiation. 

Classical electrodynamics combined with special relativity successfully predicts the angular distribution, spectrum and intensity of synchrotron radiation. Nevertheless, the mathematical formulation does not identify a distinct microscopic physical process that can be conceptually visualized as the origin of the progressive concentration of radiation into the forward cone. The physical interpretation of this relativistic beaming therefore remains open to alternative conceptual approaches.

Synchrotron radiation also possesses a broad continuous spectrum extending from infrared and visible wavelengths to ultraviolet and X-rays. Its high brightness, strong collimation, polarization and broad spectral range make it an important tool in crystallography, spectroscopy, materials science, biology, medicine, nanotechnology, semiconductor research and astrophysics.

The present study explores a reality-based conceptual interpretation of synchrotron radiation. The approach is motivated by the premise that the fundamental principles governing nature operate consistently across different physical domains. Consequently, observable macroscopic phenomena may provide useful conceptual analogies for interpreting processes occurring in microscopic or otherwise inaccessible domains, provided that the analogy is treated as a conceptual guide rather than as a direct equivalence of physical mechanisms. 

Conceptual Basis of the Present Study

A mathematical description can accurately establish relationships among observable quantities without necessarily providing an intuitive physical picture of the underlying process. The present work therefore seeks an observable natural phenomenon in which increasing dynamical activity is accompanied by the release of energy or matter from a moving system. Such an analogy may help formulate a physically transparent interpretation of synchrotron radiation.

In this context, the activity of Halley’s Comet during its approach to the Sun provides an interesting macro-domain analogy. As the comet approaches the Sun, its orbital velocity and dynamical activity increase. Solar heating and the changing dynamical conditions cause volatile materials to escape from the cometary nucleus, producing a bright coma and an extended tail containing gas, ions, electrons, and dust particles.

Abstract

The conventional interpretation of mass-energy equivalence considers that the energy released during nuclear reactions originates from the conversion of mass into energy according to Einstein’s relation E=Mc². Although mathematically successful, this interpretation does not provide a realistic physical description of how mass disappears and energy appears. The present work proposes a reality-based alternative founded on the structural concept of light particle. In this model, photons possess finite mass in a photonic mass unit together with an internal mass-space structure. During nuclear reactions, the apparent mass defect corresponds to the disintegration of matter into an enormous number of photons of an extremely fine domain rather than annihilation of mass. Each photon possesses kinetic energy by virtue of motion and internal energy associated with the non-equilibrium mass-space structure. The total energy released is obtained by summing these two contributions while maintaining independent conservation of both mass and energy. Accordingly, mass is regarded as a fundamental constituent of matter, whereas energy is treated as a state property arising from the structural and dynamical condition of matter. This interpretation offers a unified conceptual framework consistent with the author’s reality-based structural model of light particles and mass-space interaction.

Keywords: Mass–energy equivalence, Photonic mass, Photon structure, Mass conservation, Nuclear energy. 

Reality-based framework replacing the concept of mass–energy equivalence

The equations for kinetic energy and thermal energy explicitly contain the mass component of the material body. In these cases, energy is possessed by matter by virtue of its state property described through velocity or temperature. The mass of the body remains conserved while its energy changes according to its physical state. In contrast, the conventional interpretation of nuclear fission and fusion assumes that a portion of the mass disappears and is converted into energy. The reaction products consist of massive particles together with photons, which are conventionally regarded as massless carriers of energy.

According to the Standard Model of particle physics, photons and gluons are assigned zero rest mass. The strictly massless nature of the photon is closely connected with gauge invariance and the renormalizability of Quantum Electrodynamics (QED). However, experimental observations do not establish that the photon mass is exactly zero; they only impose increasingly stringent upper limits on any possible non-zero rest mass. Astrophysical and magnetohydrodynamic studies constrain the photon mass to extremely small values, with independent investigations based on galactic plasma dynamics and measurements of the galactic vector potential providing still tighter limits.

A finite photon mass would modify Maxwell’s equations through additional terms, as described by the Proca formulation and could produce observable effects in galactic plasma and electromagnetic fields. Since such effects have not been detected, progressively stronger upper bounds have been established. These results, however, do not constitute experimental proof that the photon mass is exactly zero; they indicate only that any non-zero mass must be extraordinarily small. Thus, the possibility of a finite photon mass cannot be excluded solely on experimental grounds.

The present formulation therefore considers whether future developments in physics might require a reassessment of the strictly massless-photon assumption. Although the Standard Model has achieved remarkable success within its established domain, it need not represent the final description of nature. A reality-based framework founded on conceptual consistency, uniformity of nature and cause-and-effect reasoning may merit consideration if it provides a broader physical interpretation.

In the proposed reality-based model, light is treated as a material particle possessing both mass and an internal mass-space structure [1]. This eliminates the need for wave-particle duality and provides a common structural basis for matter across different physical domains. Within this framework, electric charge is regarded as a manifestation of a nonequilibrium state of mass-space association, giving rise to different non-electric charges [2]. Accordingly, conservation of charge may involve possible interconversion between electric and non-electric charge states [2].

The model further assumes that every physical entity is fundamentally an integrated mass-space system, making mass and space universal constituents of existence [3] [4]. Physical theories should therefore seek to describe nature in terms of these fundamental constituents rather than relying exclusively on abstract mathematical formalism.

Suppose that the apparent mass defect in a nuclear reaction represents the disintegration of matter into an enormous number of photons. If one gram of matter produced approximately (10²²) photons, the mass of an individual photon would be of the order of 10^-22g. This estimate introduces the concept of a photonic mass unit, analogous to the atomic mass unit, while maintaining the principle of structural continuity across different domains of matter.

A comparable distinction occurs in ordinary thermodynamic processes. One gram of steam contains more internal energy than one gram of water or ice, although its mass remains essentially unchanged. The difference arises from changes in molecular binding and energy states, while mass and energy are not simply regarded as mutually annihilating quantities. By analogy, the energy released in nuclear reactions could arise from the reorganization and disintegration of matter into constituents belonging to a much finer physical domain. If these constituents possess masses below present experimental detection limits, the apparent loss of mass may reflect the limitations of measurement rather than the destruction of matter itself.

The conventional interpretation describes nuclear energy release through the conversion of mass into energy, expressed by (E=Mc²) where M refers to mass loss in nuclear reaction. The present model proposes a different physical interpretation: energy is liberated through the reorganization, excitation and disintegration of matter into finer constituents, rather than through the complete destruction or disappearance of mass. This perspective seeks to preserve the continuity of matter while offering an alternative reality-based interpretation of the origin of released energy.

In this framework, photons possess mass when measured in a photonic mass unit [4], although their mass is effectively zero when expressed in conventional atomic mass units because of its extremely small magnitude. If (m_p) denotes the mass of a photon, its kinetic energy at velocity ‘c’ is

KE= 1/2 (m_pc²) —                         eqⁿ-1

If a total mass loss (M_L) is disintegrated into photons during a nuclear reaction, the total kinetic energy becomes

KE = 1/2 (m_pc²).M_L/m_p= 1/2 M_Lc² —                eqⁿ-2

This result accounts for only one part of the energy predicted by Einstein’s mass-energy relation. The remaining half cannot be explained if the photon is assumed to be a structureless particle. The present work therefore proposes that, in addition to kinetic energy arising from translational motion, the photon possesses internal energy associated with changes in its mass-space structure. Recognition of this structural contribution provides a possible physical basis for accounting the remaining part of energy released during nuclear reactions and forms the basis for the reality-based interpretation developed in the following sections.

Energy of photon

The wave description of light has been highly successful in explaining many optical phenomena and the energy aspect of light. However, the very feasibility of high frequency light-wave in space medium is questionable particularly when the medium is incapable of rendering the elastic modulus required to sustain the wave propagation of light. On the other hand, the particle concept of light is feasible and it permits a realistic interpretation based on structural organization. The principle of uniformity of nature suggests that all centrally organized physical systems should exhibit structural similarity irrespective of the domain to which they belong. In view of the above, the present work is based on the particle concept with a deeper understanding of its structure [1].

According to the proposed model, a photon is a material particle consisting of a central nucleus surrounded by an extra-nuclear space structure. When the photon is at rest, this extra-nuclear structure exists in its equilibrium state. In the neutral state, photon remains passive and fails to reveal its tiny existence in any scientific experiment. When a photon is accelerated to velocity (c), the extra-nuclear space structure is assumed to be completely stripped off, while the central nucleus remains intact. This behavior differs from the conventional physical process since the existence of the extra nuclear space structure remains yet to be explored.

Any departure of the extra-nuclear space structure from its equilibrium state defines the charge-state/energy-state of the photon. The photonic charge state is represented by the ratio of the lost space content from the equilibrium space holding to the equilibrium space holding. The degree of nonequilibrium in the structural state of mass and space determines the charge potential or the energy level of the photon, whereas the energy of photon involves the net extent of mass-space non-equilibrium. The said energy level and energy correspond to the internal energy of the photon. The extent of space holding by the nucleus of photon is a function of the mass content of the nucleus because the extra nuclear space structure surrounding a nucleus is formed by mass-space attraction. Therefore, the mass of photon becomes a parameter for evaluating energy from energy level for both kinetic energy and internal energy. Thus, the internal energy of photon is the product of the mass of the photon and the charge state of the photon, where the charge state corresponds to the energy level.

In the existing concept the energy of a photon is given by

E=hν

where, E is the energy of photon, ν is the frequency of waves and h is plank’s constant.

Presumably the energy in the above expression is the sum of internal energy and kinetic energy. Since the mass term is absent in the above energy equation, the so-called energy corresponds only to the energy level of the photon and the true significance of frequency of light wave corresponds only to the photonic charge state in the realistic particle concept of light.

If photon has insignificant mass, then no theoretical model can make it zero, however the model can only assume its mass to be zero which is not the reality. If mp is the mass of photon in photonic scale unit then the internal energy of photon is given by:

E_i=k. m_p×Energy level

or E_i=k. m_p. s  —                      eqⁿ-3

where, s represents the energy level (charge potential state) of photon and k is proportionality constant.

Now comparing the light energy in conventional wave concept and that proposed in the particle concept, it is found, the term h in Plank’s equation for wave energy has the significance of photonic energy level/charge potential state in the particle concept. The Plank’s constant h corresponds to the proportionality constant k in the particle concept. But the mass term mp is missing in Plank’s energy equation. Conventionally the energy per unit mass is considered as the energy level and energy of the particle is obtained by multiplying the mass of the particle with energy level. The very fact that the term mass is missing in Plank’s energy equation, the term E corresponds to energy level. More precisely Plank’s equation gives the energy level of photon and not the energy of photon [5].

Since the mass of photons may vary in a manner analogous to atomic masses, photons of different masses may possess different energies even when they have the same energy level and charge state. If photons are assumed to have identical mass, the photon energy becomes proportional to its energy level and the distinction between energy level of photon (E_Lp) and energy of photon (E_p) becomes only a matter of normalization through different constants of proportionality.

The structural model of the photon has previously been employed by the author to provide a unified explanation to different optical phenomena without invoking wave-particle duality. The same structural concept also provides a natural explanation for the origin of photon energy. According to this model, a photon possesses energy in two distinct modes:

1. Kinetic energy mode, arising from the translational motion of the photon mass.
2. Internal energy mode, arising from the detachment of the extra-nuclear space structure from its equilibrium structure where energy is released by recombination of the space structure. This has similarity with the release of energy by recombination of ion and electron within atomic plasma.

The extra-nuclear space structure is assumed to be highly elastic due to the compressible nature of the physical space medium. Photon at rest has equilibrium space structure in a given background space potential. When the photon reaches the velocity (c), the associated extra nuclear structure is stripped off. When the photon is subsequently absorbed by matter and comes to rest, it reconstructs its equilibrium structure by acquiring the required space entities from the surrounding medium, in a manner analogous to the restoration of equilibrium in the author’s structural model of neutral atoms.

Consequently, a moving photon possesses kinetic energy because of its mass and velocity, while simultaneously possessing internal energy due to the deformation and detachment of its extra-nuclear structure. Since both forms of energy arise from the same physical cause of motion of the photon particle, the two different modes of energy can be clubbed into one at velocity (c).

The total energy of a photon is therefore

E_p= 1/2 m_pc²+km_p.s   —                      eq²-4

The energy level is directly proportional to the loss of space content from the extra nuclear space structure which is proportional to dynamic pressure and in turn proportional to v². Now substituting v² in place of s we get:

E_p= 1/2 m_pc²+km_pv²

=(k+1/2) m_pc²,  at v~c  —           eqⁿ-5

If the mass loss in nuclear reaction produces ‘n’ number of photons the total energy liberated is

E_L=n. (k+1/2) m_pc² —          eqⁿ-6

From nuclear fission and fusion experiment, the value of k is found to be ½.

Hence E_L=n. m_pc²

where E_L = Energy of disintegrated mass.

Since the total mass of all photons equals the disintegrated mass (M_L)

n.m_p=M_L

the total liberated energy becomes

E_L=M_Lc²     —             eqⁿ-7

The equation- 7 has the expression of mass energy equivalence equation E=Mc².

Within this interpretation, Einstein’s mass-energy relation is recovered without requiring the conversion of mass into energy. Instead, the released energy arises because the disintegrated mass is redistributed into an enormous number of photons, each possessing both kinetic and internal structural energy. Thus, mass and energy remain independently conserved throughout the process.

In the present reality-based framework, mass is regarded as a fundamental constituent of matter, whereas energy is considered a state property arising from the dynamical and structural condition of matter. Consequently, mass is not converted into energy; rather, energy is released through the structural disassociation of matter into finer constituents while the total mass is conserved in the photonic domain.

Conclusion

The present study proposes a reality-based interpretation of mass-energy equivalence by introducing a structural model of the photon and the concept of photonic mass. Instead of assuming that mass is transformed into energy, the analysis suggests that matter disintegrates into an enormous number of photons belonging to a finer domain of nature. The released energy originates from two physical contributions: the kinetic energy associated with the motion of photons and the internal energy arising from changes in their mass-space structure. Under this interpretation, mass and energy remain independently conserved, with energy viewed as a state property of matter rather than an entity equivalent to mass. Although the proposed model differs fundamentally from the conventional interpretation based on the Standard Model and Special Relativity, it aims to provide a physically intuitive explanation consistent with the author’s broader reality-based framework. Since the equation E=Mc² has been tested experimentally and the new interpretation predicts the same equation doesn’t require any further test to establish the new reality-based concept.

Reference

1. https://philosophyofnature.org.in/critical-analysis-on-physical-reality-of-light.
2. https://philosophyofnature.org.in/electric-and-non-electric-charges-and-their-inter-conversion.
3. https://philosophyofnature.org.in/basic-constituents-of-universe-and-their-interactions.
4. https://philosophyofnature.org.in/towards-a-new-comprehensive-universal-science.
5. https://philosophyofnature.org.in/energy-as-a-relational-property-a-mass-space-interpretation-of-nature.

Abstract

In the modern era of technology, chronic stress, emotional instability, and lack of concentration have become increasingly common among people in modern society, especially among younger generations. The existing biomedical approaches primarily address symptoms rather than long-term self-regulatory imbalance. This has highlighted the need for effective non-invasive methods capable of supporting systemic psychophysiological stability.

This study revisits breath-centered self-regulatory principles, historically developed in yogic science such as ‘Kriya Yoga’, through a computational systems framework designed to examine coordinated physiological regulation. We introduce the Multi-Modal Phase Coherence Index (MPCI) to quantify large-scale coordination across interacting respiratory, neural, autonomic, endocrine, and cognitive-emotional oscillators under biologically realistic conditions. The model incorporates sparse coupling, delayed interactions, and stochastic dynamics, and is evaluated using Monte Carlo simulations across irregular, moderate, and deep regulated breathing states.

Results show a consistent increase in global phase coherence with progressive respiratory regulation. Deep regulated breathing yielded the highest MPCI (Δ ≈ +0.0024 compared with irregular breathing) while preserving adaptive physiological variability.

These findings suggest that regulated breathing may support enhancements in multi-system coordination relevant to stress and emotional regulation. The proposed MPCI framework therefore provides a systems-level bridge between yogic principles and modern physiological modelling, offering a computational foundation for future empirical studies in neuroscience, physiology, and clinical research.

Keywords: Kriya Yoga, Body, Computational Investigation, Structured breath control, systems physiology.

Introduction

Modern Human Life and the Growing Need for Inner Stability

The modern world has brought extraordinary technological progress, yet many individuals continue to struggle with increasing psychological and emotional instability. Long working hours, continuous digital exposure, social pressure, emotional isolation, unhealthy routines, and constant mental stimulation have gradually affected the balance between mind and body. World mental health report (2022) says across different age groups, people increasingly report chronic stress, anxiety, disturbed sleep, emotional exhaustion, lack of concentration, anger dysregulation, and a persistent feeling of internal restlessness (World Health Organization, 2022; American Psychological Association, 2023). In many cases, individuals appear externally functional while internally experiencing fatigue, emotional overload, and reduced psychological resilience.

Modern medicine has made remarkable contributions in treating acute illness, infectious disease, and also severe psychiatric conditions. However, many health challenges are strongly influenced by long-term stress, lifestyle imbalance, emotional dysregulation, and reduced self-regulatory capacity. Pharmacological treatment often plays a role in symptom management, but many individuals continue to seek complementary approaches that support sustained emotional balance, mental clarity, and overall well-being beyond temporary relief alone. This growing need has encouraged scientific interest in non-invasive practices that may strengthen the body’s natural regulatory systems while supporting mental and emotional health (McCraty & Shaffer, 2015).

Among these approaches, ‘Kriya yoga’ and contemplative breathing practices have gained increasing global attention. Scientific research now suggests that yoga-based interventions may contribute to stress reduction, emotional stability, improved sleep, autonomic balance, and cognitive well-being (Tang et al., 2015; Zaccaro et al., 2018). Similarly, meditation and mindfulness-based practices are being studied for their potential influence on anxiety, emotional regulation, attentional control, and resilience against psychological stress. These developments have created an important bridge between ancient yogic and modern neuroscience, psychology, and integrative medicine.

Figure-1. Modern psychophysiological dysregulation and its resolution through Kriya Yoga regulated breathing. Contemporary stressors progressively impair autonomic, neural, and emotional regulation (left), whereas breath-centred Kriya Yoga practice (centre) supports the restoration of adaptive psychophysiological balance (right) through voluntary respiratory modulation of the autonomic nervous system.

Maharshi Patanjali and the Foundation of Yogic Self-Regulation

Long before the emergence of modern neuroscience and physiology, ancient Bhartiya philosophical traditions and yogic methods had already begun examining the relationship between breath, awareness, mental activity, and human suffering. One of the most influential contributors to this understanding was ‘Maharshi Patanjali’- The Father of Yoga, whose ‘Yoga Sutras’ remain among the foundational texts of classical yoga philosophy (Bryant, 2009).

Composed of 196 aphorisms, the Yoga Sutras present a systematic framework for understanding the nature of the human mind and the causes of psychological disturbance. Rather than viewing the mind as naturally stable, Maharshi Patanjali described it as continuously influenced by fluctuating thoughts, emotional reactions, desires, fears, memories, sensory distractions, and unconscious tendencies. According to this philosophy, uncontrolled mental fluctuations gradually disturb inner balance and become a major source of suffering in human life.

The purpose of yoga within Patanjali’s framework was therefore not just limited to physical exercise or practice alone. Yoga was described as a disciplined process of self-regulation through which individuals could gradually develop clarity, emotional steadiness, attentional stability, and deeper self-awareness (Feuerstein, 1989). Through practices involving concentration, breath regulation, restraint, meditation, and disciplined living, the practitioner move towards a more balanced and integrated state of being.

In many ways, Patanjali’s work may be understood as an early exploration of psychophysiological regulation. Although expressed through philosophical and spiritual language rather than modern biomedical terminology, the Yoga Sutras discuss processes closely related to emotional regulation, behavioural discipline, attentional control, and mental stabilization. Because now, for us, just as we understand the word biomedical as scientific, similarly at that time, the scriptures and their language Sanskrit were considered the most accepted, purest and scientific. Almost every sage and scholar used them to study, analyse, and apply (Pollock, 2006). These ideas emerged centuries before modern psychology and neuroscience formally studied cognition, autonomic balance, and stress physiology, yet they continue to remain deeply relevant to contemporary discussions on well-being and consciousness.

The Expansion of Kriya Yoga into Everyday Human Life through Mahavatar Babaji and Yogiraj Shyama Charan Lahiri Mahasaya

Kriya Yoga is a classical yogic discipline rooted in the Yoga Sutras of Maharshi Patanjali, composed over two millennia ago (Bryant, 2009). In this foundational text, Kriya Yoga is defined through three core principles: Tapah (disciplined practice), Svadhyaya (self-study), and Ishvarapranidhana (surrender to a higher organizing principle). Together, these elements describe a structured method for regulating internal states and cultivating sustained awareness. However, we the common people, came to know this invaluable practice through the lives and teachings of Yogiraj Shyama Charan Lahiri Mahasaya and Mahavatar Babaji Maharaj, as well as through their followers and disciples (Giri, 2005). They practiced, experienced and shared the infinite potential of consciousness (Chetna) with Humanity (Bharadwaj et al., 2025). They realized and explained that Kriya Yoga is the simplest method for attaining mental clarity and emotional balance. An approach that modern science now relates to behavioral conditioning, cognitive self-awareness, and emotional regulation (Tang et al., 2015; Zaccaro et al., 2018).

Within the “Kriya Yoga” tradition, figures such as Mahavatar Babaji, Yogiraj Shyama Charan Lahiri Mahasaya,Paramhansa Yoganandaand their disciples played a major role in preserving and spreading these teachings among common people.

This transition carried deep social significance because it suggested that inner discipline, self-regulation, and spiritual growth were not only limited to monastic environments. Common people living within family responsibilities, social obligations, emotional struggles, and professional pressures could also practice breath-centered meditation while remaining engaged in daily life.

Later, their disciples and followers introduced Kriya Yoga to a broader international audience and described it as a practical path for inner transformation, balanced living, and self-mastery (Yogananda, 1946). Their teachings emphasized that peace and fulfilment cannot be achieved through external success alone if the mind remains unstable and emotionally disturbed. Instead, lasting well-being arises through gradual mastery over one’s inner state.

This perspective remains deeply relevant in modern society, where many individuals struggle not only with external difficulties but also with unresolved emotional conflict, trauma, anxiety, anger, chronic stress, and psychological exhaustion. Within this broader philosophical tradition, Kriya Yoga came to be understood as a practical system for developing emotional resilience, inner steadiness, disciplined awareness, and a healthier relationship between mind and body.

Kriya Yoga as a Breath-Centered System of Psychophysiological Regulation

Kriya Yoga includes practices centered around controlled breathing, meditative awareness, inward attention, and disciplined observation of mental activity. Traditional yogic scripture often describes these practices through concepts such as Prāṇa, Nāḍīs,Kundalinī, Chakras, and Mudrās. In the present study, these concepts are approached as an experiential and systematic descriptions associated with internal regulation.

Within yogic philosophy, prāṇa is described as the vital force associated with life and movement, while nāḍīs are traditionally presented as channels through which this vital activity flows.

Among the centra main components of Kriya Yoga is regulated breathing. Modern scientific research increasingly supports the idea that breathing patterns strongly influence autonomic and emotional states. Slow and controlled breathing practices have been associated with improved heart rate variability, enhanced parasympathetic activation, reduced stress reactivity, and greater emotional stability (Jerath et al., 2006; Zaccaro et al., 2018; Laborde et al., 2017). These findings are particularly important because heart rate variability is widely recognized as a marker of adaptive autonomic flexibility and physiological resilience.

Research in contemplative neuroscience has further shown that respiration influences neural activity associated with attention, emotional processing, and cognition (Tort et al., 2018). Breathing rhythms appear capable of interacting with neural oscillations linked to awareness, sensory processing, and emotional regulation, suggesting that respiration functions not just as a metabolic process but also as an important regulator of brain-body communication.

Meditative practices associated with Kriya Yoga may additionally support emotional balance and reduced mental overactivity. Several studies involving meditation and yoga-based interventions have reported improvements in sustained attention, stress resilience, emotional awareness, and subjective well-being (Tang et al., 2015; Zaccaro et al., 2018). Some investigations have also explored neurochemical pathways related to gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), a neurotransmitter associated with emotional stability and reduced neural excitability (Streeter et al., 2010).

Taken together, these findings suggest that Kriya Yoga may function not only as a philosophical or spiritual discipline, but also as a structured system of psychophysiological self-regulation involving breath control, attentional training, emotional stabilization, and progressive refinement of internal awareness.

Health Benefits of Regulated Yogic Practice

The growing scientific interest in contemplative practices has encouraged researchers to examine how regulated breathing, meditative awareness, and yogic discipline may influence both physiological and psychological health. While the exact mechanisms continue to be investigated, existing studies increasingly suggest that structured breath-centered practices can support multiple dimensions of human well-being.

Table 1. Reported Physiological Benefits Associated with Regulated Yogic Breathing Practices

Domain	Reported Benefit	Scientific Interpretation	Representative Studies
Cardiovascular Regulation	Improved heart rate variability and blood pressure stability	Slow breathing supports autonomic flexibility and parasympathetic balance	(Jerath et al., 2006; Zaccaro et al., 2018); Laborde et al. (2017)
Stress Regulation	Reduction in stress-related physiological activation	Controlled respiration may reduce cortisol-associated stress responses and sympathetic overactivation	(Jerath et al., 2006; Zaccaro et al., 2018); Laborde et al. (2017)
Respiratory Efficiency	Improved oxygen utilization and breathing regulation	Rhythmic breathing may support metabolic efficiency and respiratory coordination	(Jerath et al., 2006; Zaccaro et al., 2018)
Physiological Resilience	Support for adaptive body regulation	Balanced autonomic activity may contribute to improved systemic resilience	Tang et al. (2015); Laborde et al. (2017)
Sleep and Recovery	Improved relaxation and restorative states	Reduced autonomic hyperarousal may support better recovery and sleep quality	Tang et al. (2015); Zaccaro et al. (2018)

Beyond physical health, these practices may also influence cognition, emotional stability, and internal awareness. Ancient yogic traditions consistently emphasized that mental suffering is intensified when attention becomes scattered and emotional reactions remain uncontrolled. Modern neuroscience increasingly supports the idea that breathing and meditative regulation can influence emotional processing and cognitive functioning through measurable physiological pathways.

Table 2. Reported Cognitive and Emotional Effects Associated with Yogic and Meditative Practices

Domain	Reported Effect	Scientific Interpretation	Representative Studies
Attention and Cognitive Clarity	Improved concentration and sustained awareness	Breath-focused attention may stabilize cognitive processing and attentional control	Tang et al. (2015); Tort et al. (2018)
Emotional Regulation	Reduced anxiety and emotional reactivity	Autonomic regulation may support emotional balance and reduced stress sensitivity	Tang et al. (2015); Zaccaro et al. (2018)
Neural Coordination	Improved interaction among functional brain regions	Rhythmic respiration and meditation may support integrated neural processing	Tang et al. (2015); Tort et al. (2018)
Self-Awareness	Greater inward observation and emotional insight	Meditative practices may strengthen interoceptive awareness and reflective processing	Tang et al. (2015)
Psychological Resilience	Improved ability to cope with stress and adversity	Disciplined self-regulation may support adaptive emotional functioning	Laborde et al. (2017); Tang et al. (2015)

These findings do provide growing evidence that breath-centered contemplative practices can influence measurable physiological and psychological processes relevant to well-being.

Psychophysiological Coherence and the Remaining Scientific Gap

Despite increasing research on yoga, meditation, and controlled breathing, important scientific questions still remain unresolved. Many studies examine isolated outcomes such as heart rate variability, emotional improvement, stress reduction, or neural activity independently. However, the human organism functions through continuous interaction among multiple systems, including respiration, autonomic regulation, neural oscillations, cognition, endocrine signalling, and emotional processing (McCraty & Shaffer, 2015).

The possibility that these systems may become dynamically coordinated during disciplined contemplative practice has not yet been fully explored through an integrated computational framework. While several findings support the role of breathing and meditation in influencing physiological and emotional states, fewer studies attempt to examine how multiple biological rhythms may interact together as part of a unified regulatory process.

This gap becomes especially important when considering the traditional yogic view of the human body as an interconnected system rather than a collection of isolated mechanisms. Although modern science and yogic philosophy use very different languages, both perspectives increasingly recognize the importance of balance, regulation, coordination, and internal stability for overall well-being.

Figure 2. The self-reinforcing psychophysiological regulation cycle of Kriya Yoga. Regulated breathing initiates a sequential cascade across autonomic, emotional, neural, and attentional systems; each stage progressively deepens subsequent regulation and returns to strengthen respiratory control, forming a closed adaptive loop that sustains psychophysiological coherence over time (McCraty & Shaffer, 2015; Tang et al., 2015).

Introduction of the Multi-Modal Phase Coherence Index (MPCI)

To address this gap, the present study introduces the Multi-Modal Phase Coherence Index (MPCI) as a simulation-based framework designed to explore cross-system physiological coordination (Bharadwaj & Bharadwaj, 2025). MPCI is proposed as a model for examining how regulated breathing and focused awareness may influence temporal alignment across respiratory, neural, autonomic, and endocrine-related rhythmic processes (Pikovsky et al. 2002).

Figure 3. Breath waveform regularity and emergent psychophysiological coherence. Irregular breathing produces weak cross-system coordination (MPCI = 0.3747), whereas deep yogic respiratory regulation (Prāṇāyāma) yields the highest adaptive coherence (MPCI = 0.3771) across 18,000 simulation steps.

The model is intended as a computational framework for investigating whether disciplined breath-centered practices may support greater psychophysiological coherence across interacting biological systems.

By integrating concepts from contemplative traditions with contemporary ideas from physiology, neuroscience, and systems regulation, the model attempts to provide a structured framework for exploring how ancient self-regulatory practices may relate to measurable processes associated with emotional balance, cognitive stability, and overall well-being.

Transition Towards the Present Study

The literature reviewed above suggests that ancient yogic science still hold important relevance in the context of modern mental and emotional health challenges. Contemporary evidence increasingly supports the view that controlled breathing, meditative awareness, and disciplined self-regulation can positively influence physiological balance, emotional resilience, and cognitive functioning. At the same time, important gaps remain in understanding how these effects emerge through coordinated interaction among multiple biological systems.

In response to this gap, the present study moves beyond philosophical interpretation alone and introduces a simulation-based analytical framework through the Multi-Modal Phase Coherence Index (MPCI), making it applicable even in consideration of modern science as well.

The following sections present the computational formulation of the (MPCI) and evaluate whether progressively regulated breathing enhances large-scale psychophysiological coherence across interacting physiological systems.

Methods

Foundation of the Present Study

The present study was designed to investigate whether regulated yogic breathing and meditative awareness may contribute to coordinated physiological activity across multiple interacting systems of the human body. Rather than treating respiration, neural activity, autonomic regulation, endocrine signalling, and emotional processing as isolated mechanisms, this work approaches them as dynamically interacting rhythmic systems capable of continuously influencing one another over time.

The conceptual basis of the study emerged from the union of two perspectives. The first originates from traditional yogic science, particularly Kriya Yoga, which describes the human organism as an interconnected field of breath, awareness, attention, and internal regulation. The second arises from modern neuroscience and systems physiology, where growing evidence suggests that respiration influences neural oscillations, autonomic balance, stress regulation, cognition, and emotional stability through complex bidirectional interactions.

From a systems-science perspective, the human body functions through continuous interaction among respiratory rhythms, neural activity, cardiovascular regulation, endocrine adaptation, attentional processes, and emotional regulation.

The present work therefore investigates whether disciplined breathing-centered regulation may support enhanced coordination across interacting biological systems under noisy and adaptive physiological conditions.

To explore this possibility, the study introduces the Multi-Modal Phase Coherence Index (MPCI) as a computational framework for examining emergent synchronization dynamics across multiple physiological oscillatory systems.

The Multi-Modal Phase Coherence Index (MPCI)

The Multi-Modal Phase Coherence Index (MPCI) was developed as a systems-level computational framework intended to quantify temporal coordination among interacting physiological oscillators.

In the context of the present study, “coherence” refers not to perfect synchronization, but to adaptive partial coordination among multiple rhythmic biological systems. Real physiological systems do not operate in a state of complete synchronization. Instead, healthy biological regulation typically emerges through metastable coordination, where systems transiently synchronize, desynchronize, and reorganize dynamically according to internal and external conditions.

The MPCI framework was therefore designed specifically to preserve biologically realistic variability while examining whether respiratory regulation could gradually recruit greater large-scale coordination across interacting systems.

The central hypothesis underlying the model was that slow and disciplined respiratory regulation may act as a hierarchical stabilizing influence capable of modulating broader psychophysiological dynamics through adaptive entrainment mechanisms. Because respiration interacts directly with autonomic function and indirectly with neural, emotional, and endocrine regulation. So, controlled breathing may influence system-wide coordination without forcing pathological global synchronization.

Rather than modelling the body as a uniformly synchronized structure, the MPCI architecture was intentionally constructed to preserve:

1. sparse physiological connectivity,
2. delayed inter-system interactions,
3. modular organization,
4. competitive desynchronization dynamics,
5. stochastic biological variability,
6. adaptive metastable behaviour.

This design was implemented to more closely resemble real biological regulatory systems.

Physiological Systems Included in the Model

To improve biological realism, following components have been taken care of. These included:

• Respiratory Regulatory Components
• Neural Oscillatory Components
• Autonomic Regulatory Components
• Endocrine-Regulatory Components
• Cognitive-Emotional Regulatory Components
• Integrative Regulatory Component

Mathematical Representation of Oscillatory Dynamics

Each physiological subsystem was represented as a nonlinear phase-evolving oscillator.

The temporal evolution of each oscillator was modelled using delayed stochastic phase dynamics:

(dθ_i)/dt = ω_i + ∑_j=1^N K_ij sin⁡(θ_j (t-τ_ij ) – θ_i(t)) + η_i(t) + A_i(t)                           (1)

where:

• θ_i represents the instantaneous phase of the i^th oscillator,
• ω_i represents its intrinsic oscillatory frequency,
• K_ij represents coupling strength between oscillators,
• τ_ij represents delayed physiological interaction times,
• η_i (t)represents stochastic biological noise,
• A_i(t) represents adaptive stabilization dynamics.

The inclusion of delayed interactions was important because biological systems do not communicate instantaneously. Neural, autonomic, endocrine, and respiratory systems interact across different physiological timescales (Kuramoto, 1984; Acebrón et al., 2005).

The model also incorporated heterogeneous stochastic perturbations because real biological systems are inherently noisy, adaptive, and continuously fluctuating rather than perfectly deterministic.

Unlike earlier globally synchronized architectures, coupling strengths within the final MPCI framework were intentionally constrained and sparse. Most oscillators interacted primarily with neighbouring functional systems rather than with the entire network simultaneously.

This prevented unrealistic synchronization collapse and preserved metastable adaptive dynamics.

Adaptive Respiratory Entrainment and Hierarchical Regulation

Within the MPCI framework, respiration functioned as the primary hierarchical regulatory driver.

Controlled breathing patterns associated with slow yogic respiration were simulated using adaptive low-frequency oscillatory inputs:

R(t)= Asin (2f_rt + ϕ) + Γ(t)                                    (2)

where:

• A denotes respiratory amplitude,
• f_r denotes respiratory frequency,
• ϕ denotes phase offset,
• Γ(t)  represents adaptive respiratory stabilization.

Unlike fixed sinusoidal forcing, the respiratory system dynamically adapted according to the evolving coherence state of the overall system.

This adaptive entrainment mechanism allowed respiratory regulation to influence broader system stability while preserving physiological flexibility and oscillatory diversity.

Three major respiratory conditions were examined:

Table 3. Adaptive respiratory regulation and system stability

Experimental Condition	Respiratory Characteristics	Physiological Interpretation
Irregular Breathing	Chaotic respiratory variability with weak stabilization	Dysregulated breathing state
Moderate Regulation	Semi-rhythmic controlled breathing	Partial regulatory stabilization
Deep Regulation	Slow highly regular breathing with strong adaptive stabilization	Disciplined meditative breathing

The purpose was to investigate whether increasing respiratory regularity could gradually recruit broader psychophysiological coordination under noisy nonlinear conditions.

Sparse Modular Coupling and Competitive Dynamics

To improve biological plausibility, the final MPCI architecture avoided dense all-to-all synchronization structures.

Instead, oscillators interacted through sparse modular coupling networks reflecting partial physiological connectivity.

The model incorporated:

1. local neural-neural coupling,
2. respiratory-autonomic regulation,
3. endocrine-autonomic adaptation,
4. attentional-emotional interaction,
5. weak long-range cross-system influence.

Competitive desynchronization dynamics were also introduced to prevent pathological global synchronization.

These competitive interactions allowed subsystems to transiently decouple and reorganize dynamically, thereby preserving adaptive physiological complexity.

This metastable behaviour was considered essential because healthy biological systems typically operate between excessive rigidity and complete disorder.

Computation of Multi-Modal Phase Coherence

To quantify collective system coordination, the study calculated the Multi-Modal Phase Coherence Index (MPCI):

MPCI(t) = 1/N ∑_k=1 ^N e^{iθ_k (t)}                            (3)

where:

• N represents the number of oscillatory subsystems,
•  e^{iθ_k (t)} represents phase-state encoding in the complex plane,
• MPCI(t) measures instantaneous global coherence.

The MPCI formulation was mathematically inspired by the classical Kuramoto order parameter commonly used in synchronization theory (Kuramoto, 1984).

The resulting MPCI values ranged between:

• 0: minimal cross-system coordination,
• 1: complete synchronization.

Importantly, within the present biological framework, extremely high coherence values were not interpreted as necessarily healthy or desirable. Instead, moderate partial synchronization combined with adaptive variability was considered more physiologically plausible.

Results

Emergence of Psychophysiological Coherence Under Regulated Breathing

The computed simulations were performed to investigate whether progressively regulated breathing could influence large-scale psychophysiological coordination across multiple interacting physiological systems. The biologically realistic MPCI framework incorporated delayed interactions, stochastic variability, sparse modular connectivity, adaptive stabilization and metastable system behaviour in order to approximate real physiological organization rather than idealized global synchronization.

Three respiratory conditions were examined within the simulations: irregular breathing, moderate respiratory regulation, and deep regulated breathing associated with slow meditative respiratory patterns. Across all simulation runs, progressively regulated breathing produced gradual increases in emergent psychophysiological coherence throughout the modelled physiological network.

The irregular breathing condition demonstrated the lowest overall coherence, indicating weaker coordination among interacting oscillatory systems. Moderate respiratory regulation produced partial stabilization and modest improvement in cross-system coordination. The deep regulated breathing condition consistently generated the highest coherence values and the most stable large-scale coordination dynamics across the simulated physiological systems.

Importantly, the simulations did not converge towards rigid synchronization. Instead, all physiologically stable states retained adaptive variability, transient desynchronization, and metastable oscillatory behaviour. This observation is important because healthy biological regulation is generally characterized by flexible coordination rather than perfectly synchronized activity.

The results therefore suggest that regulated breathing may act as a stabilizing physiological influence capable of improving large-scale coordination while preserving adaptive biological flexibility.

Comparative MPCI Outcomes Across Respiratory Conditions

The statistical analysis demonstrated measurable differences in MPCI values across the three respiratory conditions (Table-5). Mean coherence values increased progressively as respiratory regulation became more stable and disciplined.

Table 5. Comparative MPCI Outcomes Across Respiratory Conditions

Respiratory Condition	Mean MPCI	Standard Deviation	Minimum	Maximum
Irregular Breathing	0.3747	0.0155	0.3407	0.4086
Moderate Regulation	0.3760	0.0146	0.3410	0.4176
Deep Regulation	0.3771	0.0166	0.3392	0.4100

The deep regulated breathing condition generated the highest coherence values across the simulations, indicating stronger adaptive coordination throughout the modeled physiological network. Although the numerical increases were moderate, the findings remain scientifically meaningful. Under biologically realistic conditions, even relatively small increases in coherence may represent important improvements in large-scale regulatory organization.

Further, MPCI values under repeated Monte Carlo simulations demonstrated a gradual increase from irregular breathing to deep regulated breathing. Its indicates that progressively stabilized respiratory regulation may support improved large-scale psychophysiological coordination under biologically realistic noisy and adaptive conditions

The relatively stable standard deviation values across all conditions additionally suggest that the observed coherence improvements were not isolated simulation artifacts, but emerged consistently throughout repeated Monte Carlo simulations despite ongoing stochastic variability.

These findings show that progressively regulated breathing enhances large-scale psychophysiological coherence under biologically realistic conditions. The present study therefore focuses on the emergence and physiological significance of adaptive coherence, while its temporal resilience and recovery under perturbation are investigated separately.

Discussion

What the Results Really Mean

The present study set out to ask a simple but important question: can regulated breathing create a more balanced relationship among the body’s major internal rhythms? The final MPCI simulations suggest that it can, but in a measured and realistic way. In a living system, the goal is not perfect synchronization, because perfect synchronization would not be healthy. The real goal is stable coordination with enough flexibility to adapt when stress, disturbance, or change appears.

This is important because healthy physiological regulation depends on maintaining coordinated activity while remaining flexible enough to respond to changing internal and external conditions.

The findings therefore support that disciplined breathing may strengthen coordination among interacting physiological systems while preserving the adaptive variability that is characteristic of healthy biological function.

Why This Matters in Modern Life

This discussion is especially relevant because the modern problem is not that people lack intelligence or effort. The problem is that many people live in a constant state of stress. In such situations, the body often remains in a repeated state of alertness. Breathing becomes shallow, the mind becomes scattered, emotional reactions become stronger, and concentration becomes more difficult to maintain. Hence, the study suggests that Kriya Yoga, especially through controlled breathing, may offer a practical way to interrupt that cycle. Breathing is one of the few processes that is both automatic and voluntary (Jerath et al., 2006). We breathe without thinking, but we can also slow the breath with intention. That makes breath a natural bridge between body and mind. When breathing becomes calmer and more regular, the system appears more able to organize itself.

This is where the importance of Kriya Yoga becomes clear for common people. It does not require equipment, medicine, or a special setting. It can be practiced quietly, even in the middle of daily life. A person can sit for a few minutes before work, during emotional tension, or before sleep and use the breath as a tool for inner steadiness. That simplicity is one of its greatest strengths.

The Scientific Meaning of Kriya Yoga

The present findings do not claim that Kriya Yoga is a magical cure or that it replaces medical treatment. What it suggests is more meaningful and realistic. ‘Kriya Yoga’ may work as a form of self-regulation training.

From a scientific point of view, the value of Kriya Yoga lies in its ability to bring together several functions at once. Breath regulation can influence autonomic balance. Attention training can reduce mental scattering. Meditative awareness can improve emotional observation. Together, these can support a more stable internal state (Jerath et al., 2006).

That is why ancient yogic science remains relevant even today.

The present findings may be interpreted within the scope of a computational systems model. The MPCI framework does not replace experimental or clinical investigation; rather, it provides a structured platform for exploring how regulated breathing may influence large-scale psychophysiological coordination. Future experimental studies will be important for evaluating these computational predictions under real physiological conditions.

Conclusion

Long before the rise of modern neuroscience and physiology, ancient yogic traditions had already experienced the relationship between breath, awareness, emotional regulation, and human suffering. These long-standing principles have continued to inspire scientific interest in understanding how regulated breathing may influence physiological coordination and emotional well-being.

The present study attempted to scientifically explore this ancient principle through the proposed Multi-Modal Phase Coherence Index (MPCI), a computational framework designed to examine large-scale psychophysiological coordination under regulated breathing conditions. The simulations demonstrated that disciplined breathing may support improved adaptive coherence across interacting physiological systems while preserving realistic biological flexibility.

The findings suggest that ancient yogic science and modern systems physiology may complement rather than opposing one another. In this context, Kriya Yoga may serve as a meaningful bridge between traditional yogic principles and modern systems Biological, supporting investigation of non-invasive approaches for psychophysiological well-being. The present study therefore focuses on the emergence of psychophysiological coherence under regulated breathing, while subsequent work will examine the temporal stability and adaptive behaviour of the proposed computational framework.

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Abstract

This paper is the beginning of a series of small reviews on consciousness. It starts with a discussion of consciousness according to Hindu philosophy, specifically that related to cosmology and evolution. The views of three Indian stalwarts, namely, Sir Sarvepaali Radhakrishnan, Swami Vivekananda and Sri Aurobindo have been taken up. Radhakrishnan found the creation of the world an accident, but it was real, and the formation had four stages through matter, life, mind and spirit, the last two were linked to consciousness. Vivekananda opined that the creation of the universe was part of a continuous cyclic process, but no personal God was needed for that, rather, nature (prakriti) was good enough for that, yet, consciousness exists in all matter as part of the cosmic intelligence. Finally, Sri Aurobindo’s integral cosmology, with an eleven-tier consciousness structure, and provision of a theoretical framework that can unite science and spirituality through synthesis of knowledge between Western materialistic and Eastern metaphysical cosmologies, is discussed.

Key Words: Creation of the world, Samkhya cosmology, Integral cosmology, Science and spirituality, Western materialistic cosmology, Eastern metaphysical cosmology. Self-consciousness, Super consciousness.

Introduction

Since the day when the human being appeared in the universe, along with his whole lot of gross and fine belongings such as the body, mind, soul etc., consciousness has been a very special possession. It is so special that scores of scholars belonging to various subject-fields such as philosophy, sociology, psychology, biology, neuroscience, and many others throughout the world are studying consciousness till that time. In recent times the studies have been growing in depth, width and intensity. While, on one side,  wide range of philosophical concepts such as: panpsychism – that views consciousness as a fundamental feature of the physical universe [Seager 2020], cosmopsychism – that proposes the universe itself to possess a fundamental consciousness [Shani 2015], panspiritism – that supposes a fundamental consciousness, or, spirit that acts as the primary building block of the universe [Taylor 2020], are doing rounds; at the other side, scientists are trying to relate consciousness to brain mechanisms and their neural correlates [Koch 2018]. 

At this stage, mention may be made about Dr. S. K. Saksena of Department of Philosophy at Hindu College, Delhi, who, submitted a Ph.D. Thesis on the subject ‘Nature of consciousness in Hindu philosophy’ to the School of Oriental Studies, London, which was examined by none other than Sir Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, the then Spalding Professor of Eastern Religion and Ethics at the University of Oxford, and got approved. Though it happened in 1938, the thesis was published as a book with the same title in 1944. However, the main reason of this mention here is that Saksena has made the bold statement for the ‘need of a systematic study of the problem of consciousness in Hindu philosophy’ because, bold and vigorous thinking has gone in India for a long period of time starting from the Upanishad times extending to the end of the seventeenth century A. D.; the Hindu thinkers have thrashed out almost all possible concepts which they could have possibly evolved; they were daring enough to have carried their reasoning to the farthest logical conclusions [1944, 4]. 

The subject of consciousness is considered relevant for our journal, and hence, a series of short review articles by this author is planned. Following the idea of Saksena, Hindu philosophy has been chosen to be the starting point, and, since consciousness started with mankind, the issue of evolving cosmology is considered suitable to begin with. Thus, the present article aims to discuss the cosmology and evolution aspects related to consciousness, mostly by three Indian authors, namely, Sir Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, Swami Vivekananda, and Sri Aurobindo.  

Radhakrishnan On Evolution of The Universe

Sir Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan (1888-1975), an eminent philosopher, scholar, and statesman, the first Vice-President (1952-62) and the second President (1962-67) of independent India, has earned world-wide reputation for his scholarship, specifically in bridging the gap between Eastern and Western philosophies. Saradhi and Kotari have written a paper exactly fitting to the present need [2018]. The first citation of Radhakrishnan’s statements by them reads ‘the World’s creation is an accident and is not necessary for God.’ [7941]. This statement is followed by another that ‘it is real, not illusory’. His argument for such a combination of ‘accident’ and ‘real’ stand on the facts that, the first one accounts for why ‘this particular possibility has been realized,’ not any other, which is only possible by an accident; and the other that the creation is ‘real’ stands for the reason that, it occurred by an accident of the Absolute. ‘According to him the entire universe holds an expression of divine plan’. [7943].

Radhakrishnan perceives four stages, such as matter, life, mind (consciousness) and spirit (self-consciousness) in the evolution of the world. Matter is the first stage of a world where only physical events exist mostly in their own right without any relation to the perceiving mind, because mind has not been evolved then. Materials are mostly changed due to the varying combinations of the so-called atoms or the indivisible particles, and the conception of matter was bound up with such types of materialism and the conception of sensation. Matter was regarded as the cause and effect of sensation, though sensation is considered as passive through which the mind receives impressions from the external world. Life is the next stage of evolution that occurred from matter. Yet, the living organism as a whole does such things that the atomic system can never do. They register the results of their experience, and in a sense form a habit. The changes which they present in response to outward circumstances are retained and built into the organism. An atom can neither mend itself nor reproduce itself. [7946].

The mind is the next stage in the evolution of the matter–life continuum. According to Radhakrishnan the mind is real to the extent that it is the reflection of the divine; and he identifies mind with consciousness. According to him consciousness is of two varieties – animal consciousness and human consciousness; the former is of a lower level and the later is of higher level which can attain self-consciousness-state. He explains that the presence of consciousness makes a real distinction to the behavior. The activities directed by a conscious mind possess a unity and coordination. Radhakrishnan finds consciousness to be ‘something unique, new and distinctive, uniquely creative.’ [7947]. 

To a question whether this evolution of the universe is naturalistic or mechanistic – Radhakrishnan does not choose either, rather, he chooses spiritual. According to him, the world is full of an infinite series of interdependent conditioned events; and each existence finds its source and support in a supreme reality whose nature is spiritual. Further, it is the reflection of a spiritual universe which gives to it its life and significance. [7942].

The next stage of evolution is Self-Consciousness which results due to the presence of ‘spirit’ or, a ‘self’ in a human being. Radhakrishnan views this ‘spirit’ within a reflective human mind with intelligence and capacity of producing free inventions through which man has conquered nature. He also foresees that the human being should surpass the level of self-consciousness and reach to the heights of spiritual consciousness. Radhakrishnan perceives that the world is dynamic, not static; and he visualizes the play of ‘spirit’ in the world, it is this ‘spirit’ that progresses from matter to self-consciousness. To him, the world is a samsara that is a perpetual procession of events, so much so that ‘Indian thinkers, Hindu and Buddhists, viewed the world as a stream of happenings, a perpetual flow of events. Change is the essence of existence.’ ‘The different stages are not opposed as good and evil; it is an evolution from one stage to another. Then different stages are distinguished only within a unity. Body, mind and spirit constitute one whole man. The highest product of cosmic evolution, namely spirit, is the hidden principle at work and slowly discloses itself.’ Radhakrishnan observes that the goal of evolution is ananda, the spirit [7944-45].

Vivekananda’s Sankhya Cosmology

Swami Vivekananda (1863-1902), the chief disciple of the Indian mystic Ramakrishna Paramahansa, was a commanding spiritual leader, philosopher, author and modern thinker of India who made Hinduism dynamic and practical, and urged modern humanity to combine Western science and materialism with India’s spiritual culture for building a sustainable civilization. He became super-famous for his epoch-making address ‘My dear sisters and brothers of America’ at The Parliament of Religions, Art Institute of Chicago, on 11th September 1893, to a thunderous standing ovation of the audience. After his strong and appealing speech at the religious parliament, he stayed back in the USA till the end of 1896 to explain to the American people the essence of Vedantic philosophy. During his discourses, he covered systematically the Samkhya philosophy developed by rishi Kapila; then he narrated the way the creation was manifested from Prakriti according to the Samkhya theory, he terms it ‘Samkhya cosmology,’ and finally ends with the Advaita philosophy of Brahman. These discourses, specifically the ‘Samkhya cosmology,’ although in a different context, have been covered in minute detail in an earlier article in this journal [Paramguru 2024]; therefore, in the present article the same will not be repeated, only the specific issues pertaining to consciousness will be discussed. The readers are requested to refer to the said article for the purpose of getting detailed ideas about cosmology.

Unlike Radhakrishnan, Vivekananda does not say that the creation of the universe was an accident; rather, he says that according to Samkhya philosophy, the processes of evolution and involution of the universe is a continuous cyclic process. We know from modern astronomy, maybe just for the present evolution, that this earth and sun of ours are undergoing similar transitions (Vivekananda 2015, 16). Regarding the existence of God, Swamiji says that the father of all psychologists, Kapila, denies the existence of God as Creator. His idea is that a personal God is quite unnecessary; Prakriti is sufficient to work out all that is good’ (22). Here, a question arises, in absence of God, what is the cause of these gross as well as finer materials? Here, Swamiji says, ‘A very startling and curious answer is given by our psychologists, – self-consciousness’ (19). The Samkhyas believe that each existing material in the universe has some portion of consciousness as its material. Rather, it will be prudent to say that the first essential manifestation of prakriti in the cosmos is Mahat, we may call it universal intelligence; and consciousness (including all the grounds of consciousness, sub-consciousness, and super-consciousness) is only a part of this intelligence, which is universal. 

Although we may not discuss about Samkhya Cosmology in detail, we may site a couple of major points. The first point is that according to Swamiji, the human mind is ‘our little universe,’ (2); and ‘the whole of the universe is built upon the same plan as one single man, or one little being’ (24). This narration implies that both the human ‘body’ and ‘mind’ undergo similar manifestations like the gross bodies of our universe (25). The second point is that, according to the philosophers and metaphysicians of India, mind is but matter in a finer form, so also is the intellect that comes from the same Nature which is called Avyaktam, the undifferentiated (11). Also, behind the indriyas present the manas, the chitta in vriti, what might be called the vibratory state of the mind. Another thing also accompanies all the acts of the mind – called egoism, the ahamkara, which is termed as the self-consciousness, and behind that is what is called Mahat, the intelligence, the highest form of Nature’s existence. Behind the intellect is the true Self of man, the Purusha, the pure, the perfect. It may also be called the soul, or the Atman. Further, according to Samkhya philosophy, everything in nature, including mind, intelligence, and will, all its products, Prakriti itself, are jada (insentient). But the very basis of sentiency lies in the Purusha, and ‘in this world of insentiency Purusha alone is sentient’ (44). That is to say, this Purusha, taking him in the universal sense, is the impersonal God of the universe; and taking him in the human sense, is the small God of the human being. Actually, this Purusha, in Samkhya philosophy, is perceived as the so-called God, or just the ‘consciousness.’

The Integral Cosmology of Sri Aurobindo

Sri Aurobindo, the full name Aurobindo Ghosh (1872-1950), was famously known for his dual activities, the first as an Indian nationalist fighting against the British colonial rule, and then as a profound spiritual philosopher, poet and yogi who created ‘integral yoga’. In fact, his term ‘integral yoga’ has been visualized as ‘integral cosmology,’ as used in the above heading, and also as ‘integral Vedanta’ by the Italian born physicist, with interests in foundations of physics, metaphysics and philosophy of mind, Marco Masi (1965-) [2023]. In Masi’s view, Aurobindo’s ‘notion of evolutionary progress, from the Absolute to the universal, or cosmic consciousness and the planes and parts of being’ which are ‘the different levels of consciousness in its individuated and cosmic dimension’ ‘transcends beyond a simple mind, body, and soul ontology.’ Further, he visualizes presence of ‘a ‘concentric system’ of inner, outer and inmost identities’ along with ‘the ‘psychic being’ – the notion of an evolutionary soul’ – and ‘the diverse levels of cognition beyond mind, such as over-mind, cosmic-mind and super-mind’ in Aurobindo’s integral vision, all of which have ‘vast implications leading to an extended concept of evolution’ [515]. 

Aurobindo’s evolutionary spiritual vision is a concept of the existence of a spiritual evolution and progress in Nature. He conceives an integral structure of Being, then through ‘cellular yoga’ he brings in the transmutation of the material body into the image of the Spirit. He uses the traditional Indian Upanishad-based yoga philosophy which describes the being as ‘vehicles’, ‘bodies’, or, ‘sheets of consciousness’, called ‘koshas’ that covers the soul layer by layer like the layers in an onion. Aurobindo named these ‘koshas’ as Anandamaya kosha (Satcitananda), Vijnanamaya kosha (Supermind), Manomaya kosha (Mental), Pranamaya kosha (Vital), and Annamaya kosha (Physical). He calls the first two as ‘higher hemisphere’ and the lower three as ‘lower hemisphere’. He also says that there are still lower ranges of consciousness, such as: subconscience, inconscience, and nescience to which we are insensible; and there is also a higher range such as superconscience which is unseizable to us. He has developed his integral yoga system around this five-kosha-structure of classical yoga with further refinement [518].  

Aurobindo’s concept of the ‘concentric system’ of Being, Soul and Nature consists of ‘the outer being’, which is dominated by the partially controlled mental and emotional impulses and reactive patterns, may be said as the gross physical body; ‘the inner being’, termed by him as ‘subliminal being’, or simply ‘subliminal’, which is the inner spiritual consciousness and considered closer to the divine; and ‘the inmost being’, which is our true being and personality in us, where our true evolutionary soul (he terms it ‘psychic being’ and Indian Upanishad terms it ‘Chaitya purusha’) resides. Like in Samkhya philosophy, Aurobindo’s integral yoga also distinguishes between Soul (Purusha) and Nature (Prakriti, or the cosmic universal nature). This triple system of the outer, inner and inmost beings is called the ‘concentric system of being’ and it represents the metaphysical structure of the individuated being inside the larger cosmic context which is nicely summarized by Masi in a table which is reproduced here [2023, 522-523].

In this hierarchy of metaphysical structure of integral yoga, as described in Table 1, the psychological existence of any ordinary human being is a mixture, an interdependent cross-interaction of all these beings [523].

Finally, Masi presents a diagram which is complementary to Table 1, yet displays the full spectrum of the vertical system of consciousness in Aurobindo’s cosmology [2023, 531]. The same diagram is also placed below. It may be noted that it is not just a structure of consciousness of an individual human being, but it is a cosmology of consciousness applicable to the universal planes [531]. Here, another point is also to be 

Table 1. The concentric system of being according to Sri Aurobindo [Masi 2023, 523].       

Prakriti                                                                                                                               Purusha

Outer being                                                       Inner (Subliminal) being                  Inmost being

Outer mental (Sense – and physical mind     Inner mental (reason, intellect)      Psychic being + emotional or vital mind)                                                                                    (Chaitya Purusha) —————————————————————————————————- Outer vital (lower vital)                                  Inner vital (higher vital) —————————————————————————————————- Outer physical (gross body)                           Inner physical (subtle physical)

Diagram 1. The vertical system of the planes and parts of being [Masi 2023, 531].

Consciousness (Impersonal)                                                                           (Personal)

Satcitananda                             (Top Six):                                                 (Top two): Jibatman/ Supermind                                                                                              Cosmic mind —————–                                                                                          ——————————– Overmind                           Higher Hemisphere Intuition Illumined mind Hogher mind ———————-              ——————————– Mind                                       (Bottom Five): Vital Subconscient                          Lower Hemisphere Inconscient Nescient/Material

noted that each of the mind, overmind, Supermind, the vital plane do not evolve, each is ever-present realities on their own, each of them only emerge in time on the physical plane; and it is their progressive emergence in and through matter that we call ‘evolution’ [533]. 

Aurobindo has integrated all the previous forms of ontologies such as ‘material monism’, ‘rationalistic and materialistic reductionist naturalism’, ‘Vedantic non-dual tradition’, ‘Vedic cosmology’ etc., but extends it to an integral multidimensional cosmology articulated by the universal planes and parts and augmented by an evolutionary vision [538]. At the end, Masi’s concluding remark may be stated: ‘Even though one requires a fair amount of effort to get acquainted with the richness and complexity of Aurobindo’s cosmology, I believe it to be the most promising theoretical framework that can accommodate science and spirituality, in a unique synthesis of knowledge between Western and Eastern materialistic and metaphysical cosmologies [550].

Conclusions

This paper described consciousness according to Hindu philosophy, specifically that related to cosmology and evolution through the views of three Indian scholars, namely, Sir Sarvepaali Radhakrishnan, Swami Vivekananda and Sri Aurobindo. Though Radhakrishnan viewed the creation of the world as an accident, yet, he found it to be real, and its formation was in four stages of matter, life, mind and spirit. The last two stages that are mind and spirit were concerned with consciousness. Vivekananda said that the creation of the world was part of a continuous cyclic process, but no personal God was needed for that, rather, nature (prakriti) is good enough for the purpose. The existence of consciousness in all matter as part of the cosmic intelligence was universal. Finally, Sri Aurobindo’s integral cosmology having an eleven-tier consciousness structure was discussed. This provides a theoretical framework that can unite science and spirituality through synthesis of knowledge between Western materialistic and Eastern metaphysical cosmologies.

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