Institute of Philosophy of Nature

Unified Field Theory: Indians Part of Research

Raja Kishore Paramguru — Sat, 02 May 2026 04:24:07 +0000

Abstract

This paper presents a brief account of contributions of Indian researchers to UFT research. It started with the famous Satyendra Nath Bose in early 1950s, and continued with Gaganbihari Bandyopadhyay, J. R. Rao, Ratna Shanker Mishra, and the USA based Jogesh Chandra Pati. Many others, either in association with them, or independently, also contributed. Indian contribution to UFT research may be termed commendable, though, similar to Einstein’s original work, it falls short of achieving a complete unification of forces, leaving the field open for future exploration.

Key Words: Unified Field Theory, Grand Unified Theory, Field Equations, Affine Connection, Mixed Geometry, Divergence Identities, Empty-Space Solutions, Linear Equations, Tensorial Objects.

Introduction

More than one hundred years have passed by since Albert Einstein (1879-1955), the initiator of the idea of ‘unified field theory (UFT)’ made the first announcements on the subject during 1920s. Following it, volumes of research have been conducted. As UFT is highly relevant to the objective of our journal, a series of short reviews on UFT were published by the present author starting with [Paramguru 2025a]. This one presents the activities of Indian scientists on the subject. The motivation for this one arose from the fact that the noteworthy historical coverage on UFT between 1930-1965 in Living Reviews in Relativity by the German theoretical physicist Hubert Goenner [2014], besides uttering ‘India’ and ‘Indian’ at various places; and quotes like, ‘(I)in the 1970s and 1980s, many papers on exact solutions of the Einstein-Schrodinger theories and alternatives were published by Indian scientists‘ [181]; assigns two pages [158 and 159] for Indians’ research on this subject. It may also be noted that in the same review a total of 723 references has been cited out of which 37, more than 5 per cent, are authored by 15 Indians. Obviously, this situation calls for a discussion on the subject.

The Indians’ contribution to UFT has also been briefly covered in the earlier publication [Paramguru 2025b]. The Indian scientists cited by Goenner [2014] start from Satyendra Nath Bose, to Ratna Shanker Mishra, Gaganbihari Bandyopadhyay and twelve others. It has been found from literature that their contributions were highly significant, and they also continued to research and publish afterwards till they were active. Therefore, the present review will discuss major parts of the UFT research conducted by these Indian scientists as reported by Goenner [2014], and will also include their contributions afterwards during the 1970s and 1980s as found in literature. In addition, the work of American-Indian physicist Jogesh Chandra Pati will also be added, since his contribution is significant.

Satyendra Nath Bose

Satyendra Nath Bose was probably the most renowned Indian scientist referred to by Goenner, and hence, he went ahead in a note: ‘This is Satyendra Nath Bose (1894-1974) of the Einstein-Bose statistics.’ Our readers also deserve a brief mention here about the Einstein-Bose statistics fame. During 1924, a thirty-year Bose submitted a four-page research paper titled ‘Planck’s law and the light quantum hypothesis’ to the journal Philosophical Magazine, which was rejected for publication; then Bose did the wisest thing possible, sent it straight to Einstein for his comment with a hand-written cover letter. Einstein liked the paper, immediately acknowledged the receipt as well as the worthiness of the same, translated it to German language and sent it to the German journal Zeitschrift fur Physik, and it was published in its 1924 August issue [Debnath 1993, 636]. It was the beginning of quantum statistics, and soon Bose’s name was reflected in the sub-atomic particle ‘boson’, and the theoretical term in physics, ‘Bose-Einstein condensate.’ Bose continued his research as well as his contact with Einstein, the fame of the later facilitated a two-year leave for research and study abroad in Europe with research fellowship and full travel expenses for Bose from his employer Dacca University during 1924; Bose got a chance to work in the laboratory of Madame Curie at Paris, and finally met Einstein at Berlin in 1925 [628]. From Berlin, getting selected for the position of professor and Head of Physics Department of Dacca University, with recommendation of Einstein, Bose came back to India during 1926 and continued working at Dacca University till 1945 when he got a chance to come back to his ‘Alma mater’ as the renowned Khaira Professor of Physics, then during 1950-56 was Head of the Department of Physics. Amongst the numerous honors received by him include Fellow of Royal Society of London, and the second highest Indian civilian award Padma Bibhushan [629].

During the 1910s and early 1920s Bose was interested in Einstein’s hot topic of the time – relativity, and along with M. N. Saha, brought out a book The Principles of Relativity in 1920. However, when he met with Einstein during 1925, he learned that Einstein had shifted his interest to unified field theory. Though Einstein spent the rest of his life researching on UFT, Bose never thought of doing any research on this subject. However, since 1948, he revived his early interest and published five papers, four of them in French, during 1953-1955 at various aspects of UFT [Bose 1953a, Bose 1953b, Bose 1953c, Bose 1954, and Bose 1955]. During 1994, S. N. Bose National Centre for Basic Sciences, Calcutta, has brought out a book, S N Bose: The Man and His Work – Part I: Collected Scientific Papers, edited by a group of editors with Santimay Chatterjee as chief editor, where all of these five papers have found place including English translation of the French papers [Chatterjee 1994]. In the first paper, Bose dealt with the divergence identities used in UFT in an easier way, whereas, in the second paper, he dealt with a complicated Lagrangian [26]. The last three papers of Bose were dealing with the field equations and their solutions [30]. Goenner [2014] has referred, not all five, but only three of Bose’s papers [Bose 1953a, Bose 1954, and Bose 1955] and has indicated that Bose rewrote the particular field equation into an inhomogeneous linear equation for tensorial objects, which was homogeneous and linear in T [Bose 1955]. He then considered the equation as a matrix equation, went ahead for its solution [Bose 1954 and Bose 1955]. It appears that many others including Einstein and Kaufman have gone in for the solutions. Goenner’s final statement on this issue is: “Although the method is more transparent than Tonnelat’s, the solution is just as implicitly given as hers [2014, 112].”

To be honest, it is really difficult to understand whether Bose had any contribution to UFT without going technically into his research. Here comes another way out to have some idea of his contribution from the Horse’s mouth, i.e., Einstein’s mouth. Like his 1924 paper, Bose also supplied his research papers to Einstein at Princeton, and Einstein wrote his own comments through two letters to Bose, one (type-written) on 4th October 1952, and the other (hand-written) on 22nd October 1953; and both are published [Chatterjee 1994, 27-29]. Chatterjee’s edited book [1994] also puts Einstein’s mind on this issue very precisely, “(T) thus to Einstein the crucial problem was: ‘Do the singularity-free solutions of the equation system have physical meaning? Are there at all singularity-free solutions which correspond to the atomistic character of matter and radiation?’ From this view point the solution of those equations is not of great help [31].” According to Debnath [1993, 643]: “Indeed Bose had a number of contributions to the unified field theory including some major changes in the field equations. He obtained the general solution of Einstein’s field equations connecting the basic field quantities and affinities in the non-symmetric field theory. —. But, according to Einstein, Bose’s work broke no new ground on the subject.” This is probably the exact gist of Einstein’s two letters to Bose. One thing can be said that Einstein knows exactly what Bose did.

Gaganbihari Bandyopadhyay

Goenner’s two pages for section 13.3 describing research by Indians starts with: “In a short note, the Indian theoretician G. Bandyopadhyay293 considered an affine theory using two variational principles such as Schrodinger [553] had suggested in 1946 [9] [158].” Here, the bracketed numbers 553 and 9 refer to the work of respectively Schrodinger and Bandyopadhyay, the superscript number 293 duly refers to the note 293 which the author considers apt to give a short introduction on Bandyopadhyay. We learn that Bandyopadhyay was associated with Government College, Darjeeling, IIT Kharagpur and then University of Calcutta from where he retired as Professor from Department of Applied mathematics. Goenner [2014] has cited five papers of Bandyopadhyay [1951a, 1951b, 1953, 1960, and 1963]. The first paper provides particular solutions, as the title suggests, for Einstein’s then unified field theories. In fact, the symmetry of so called “1-dimensional” gravitational fields of Einstein’s general relativity, i.e., those for which the metric components depend on only a single coordinate, is high enough to try and solve for them field equations of UFT. Bandyopadhyay had found such a solution of the weak equations [1951a]. The second paper, published in the epic journal Nature, analyzed the non-symmetric tensor field variables (gµv) in Einstein’s unified field theory, specifically examining isolated singularities [Bandyopadhyay 1951b]. The third paper, the gist of which is quoted in the first line of this paragraph, considered an affine theory using two variational principles as suggested by Schrodinger earlier, generated the field equations, and also gave the solution [Bandyopadhyay 1953].

Bandopadhyay’s fourth paper started from his second paper, where one of his claims was that for the strong equations m e = 0, here m, e are the parameters for mass and charge, a discussion took place whether isolated mass-less magnetic monopoles could exist. In 1960, he came back to this question in his fourth paper and claimed that the stronger equations will not allow isolated magnetic poles with mass whereas the weaker equations will allow the existence of such entities [1960, 427]. His fifth paper is development of a theorem on spherically symmetric solutions in unified theory, which holds good for both Einstein’s and Schrodinger’s unified theories [Bandyopadhyay 1963]. He worked on para-form field equations in Schrödinger’s unified theory, focusing on static spherically symmetric fields; and showed that for certain plane-symmetric field structures, solutions in Schrödinger’s unified theory could be generated from known empty-space solutions of the general theory of relativity. His research was notable for extending solutions from empty-space conditions to those containing electromagnetic fields, providing insight into how physical situations could be generated in unified theories. As will be shown later, his work has motivated other Indian researchers and they have also extended his research further.

Goenner puts a categorical statement that – “(T) the generation of exact solutions to the Einstein-Schrodinger theory became a fashionable topic in India since the mid-1960s” [158]. Following a suggestion of G. Bandyopadhyay, R. Sarkar published two papers [Sarkar 1965 and Sarkar 1966]. In the first paper, he assumed the asymmetric metric to have the form, where, x0 is used instead of x4. Then, as a physical interpretation, he offered the analogue to a Newtonian gravitating infinite plane. The limit in the metric components led back to Bandyopadhyay’s solution [1951a] and he brought out the solution; and he could also remove some printing errors from Bandyopadhyay’s text. In his second paper [Sarkar 1966], Sarkar used the asymmetric metric again, and found that the solutions are static and with coordinate singularities. No physical interpretation was given.

Physicist N. N. Ghosh from the Department of Pure Physics of Calcutta University has published three papers [1955, 1956, and 1957] which have also been referred to by Goenner [2014, 159]. These papers deal with the general solution of field equations, specifically in the strong form, in Einstein’s unified field theory, where he has tried products of functions depending on different coordinates for the components of the asymmetric metric in his attempt at solving the strong field equations. However, Goenner comments that due to his awkward index notation and use of many ad-hoc additional assumptions, Goenner could not find out what kind of new exact solutions he has found; a clearer presentation might have helped [159].

There are some contributions from many other researchers, mostly one, or two publications by each, which are not being taken up here; however, their names are being mentioned: B. R. Rao, V. V. Narlikar, K. B. Lal and S. P. Singh, S. N. Gupta, S. Datta Mazumdar, and A. R. Roy and C. R. Datta. But one person who could make it to the ‘IIT Kharagpur Foundation (USA) Newsletter’ (volume 12.22.2024) with the article, ‘From IIT Kharagpur to Einstein’s Equations: The Story of J. R. Rao’ will have a special mention.

R. Rao

Goenner has referred to two papers of J. R. Rao [1959 and 1972] but has commented that “(T)there exist a number of helpful review articles covering various stages of UFT like — Rao [504], —-” [2014, 10]. This mention, in itself, should be considered as praise-worthy. However, there remains a bigger story to be told. J. R. Rao was belonging to the then Department of Mathematics of IIT Kharagpur to which Professor G. Bandyopadhyay was also once belonging before shifting to the University of Calcutta. In one of his papers, Rao expresses his deep sense of gratitude to Professor G. Bandyopadhyay for his helpful discussions and encouragement. This indicates a professional link between the two. However, what is the most significant fact in our context right now is that this mathematician as well as IITKgpean J. R. Rao successfully defended his PhD thesis ‘Some Problems in Einstein’s Unified Field Theory of 1945’ during 1962. And the story in the IIT Newsletter is based on the synopsis of this PhD thesis.

It is a well-known fact that Albert Einstein proposed the UFT in 1945 and scores of research was continuing at that time, because Einstein’s original equations contained non-symmetric tensors which raised the questions of mathematical consistency and solvability. Rao did the right thing by doing a deep review of all the issues of Einstein’s theory such as derivation of field equations, linear relations, exact solutions, and physical interpretations. He did also look into alternate approaches including works by Schrodinger and Weyl. Finally, he offered three propositions: (i) a special type of symmetry and coordinate system leading to an explicit field structure that resembled the infinite plane analogy in general relativity, (ii) a “rigorous solution”, as well as, (iii) a “restricted weaker form” solution, those were derived by simplifying certain constants. Of course, similar to Einstein’s original work, according to the story of IITKgp Foundation, Rao’s dissertation falls short of achieving a complete unification of forces, leaving the field open for future exploration.

Rao’s contribution to the UFT is not limited to his PhD thesis; rather, it is well extended to several publications mostly in association with his coauthors. Here, not all of them, but just a couple of them are cited [Rao and Tiwari 1974, Mohanty, Tiwari, and Rao 1982]. In the first one, the authors provide a theorem, which in their own words – ‘we may say that we can pass from a special empty-space solution of general theory of relativity to the solutions of unified field theory. It is indeed highly gratifying to be able to build physical solutions either in general theory of relativity or in unified theories from the empty-space solutions which form a solid base for Einstein’s gravitational theory’ [1974, 595]. Similarly, a couple of sentences are cited from the later paper, which describes, in their own words, their own contribution to UFT: ‘(Rao et al [13][14][15]) have obtained a class of solutions for cylindrically symmetric coupled zero-mass and source free electromagnetic fields described by Einstein-Rosen metric and have interpreted these solutions mainly from the view point of their singular behaviour. In a separate investigation they (Rao et al [16][17][18][19]) have extended the study to the case of Brans-Dicke theory’ [1982, 238]. There is also a mention in Rao’s coverage in the IIT Kharagpur Foundation Newsletter – The work connected Rao’s solutions to those obtained in some earlier works by Indian physicists Ghosh and Bandyopadhyay.

Here, one more Indian, Dipak Kumar Sen will be described, because he also appears as flashy as Rao. Goenner has cited four of Sen’s contributions, including one PhD thesis [1958], one book [1968], two papers with one coauthor in each [Sen and Dunn 1971, and Sen and Vanstone 1972]. The specialty of the PhD thesis is that it is in French and submitted to the faculty of science at Paris, which Goenner mentions – ‘In the thesis of D. K. Sen began [174] with G. Lyra in Goettingen and finished in Paris with M. A. Tonnelat, —’ [175]. The thesis is about a novel unified theory for a static cosmological model of the universe based on Lyra’s geometry [Sen 1958]. Of course, in later developments of the theory by Sen and his coworkers in the 1970s, it was interpreted just as an alternative theory of gravitation (scalar-tensor theory) [1971 and 1972]. The book Fields and/or particles [1968] is solely based on the PhD thesis and attracts the comment from Goenner – ‘(T)to my knowledge, the only textbook including the Einstein-Schrodinger non-symmetric theory has been written in the late 1960s by D. K. Sen [572].’ [2014, 10]. By the time the book was published, Sen had shifted to the Department of Mathematics, University of Toronto, Canada.

Ratna Shanker Mishra

Along with Gaganbihari Bandyopadhyay, Ratna Shanker Mishra (1918-1999) also appears (Ratan appears in place of Ratna) in section 13.3 where research of Indians is described. From amongst Indians, Goenner has cited the highest numbers of publications of Mishra, totaling 13, with 8 as single author [1956a, 1956b, 1958a, 1958b, 1958c, 1959a, 1959b, and 1963] and 5 with coauthors [Husain and Mishra 1956, Abrol and Mishra 1958, Kaul and Mishra 1958, Lal and Mishra 1960, and Mishra and Abrol 1960]. The note number 294 presents his credentials, of which the last but one sentence reads – ‘He has been a visiting professor in many countries, and worked and published with V. Hlavaty at Indiana University.’ [158]. And Goenner’s description of V. Hlavaty reads – ‘Hlavaty272 is the fourth of the main figures in UFT besides Einstein, Schrodinger, and Tonnelat’ [144]. This implies Mishra got the opportunity of working with the fourth main figure in the world working in UFT. One of the students of R. S. Mishra, R. B. Misra has brought out a memoir in favor of his guru as posthumously remembered by his students [2018], where it has been mentioned that – “He collaborated with Prof. V. Hlavaty at Indiana University, Bloomington (U.S.A.) twice: 1957-58 and 1961-62” [5]; and another long and big statement – “Prof. V. Hlavaty — while working on a problem of ‘Field equations’ left a note on his death bed ‘In case of my death or incapacitation, Prof. R. S. Mishra would be willing to complete this work’. It is so heartening that Prof. Mishra was able to complete the work which ran into 100 printed pages” [3].

Goenner’s mention of Mishra’s work on UFT is also wide and deep, placed at various sections. Mishra, being a mathematician, has looked into mathematical features such as ‘affine and/or mixed geometry’ [1956a, 1959a, Husain and Mishra 1956], ‘lambda transformations’ [1956b], and attempted solutions for various cases, as well as derived conditions for equations to have unique solutions [1958a, 1958b, 1959b, 1963, Lal and Mishra 1960]. According to Goenner, Mishra has also studied Einstein’s last publication with Kaufman and provided a solution for its connection [1958c]. Mishra’s joint paper with Abrol [Mishra and Abrol 1960] is also directed to Einstein-Kaufman version of Einstein’s theory, where the authors claim that ‘the equations of motion of charged particles found from the system of field equations by applying Infeld’s method of approximation, fails in this peculiar theory.’ Abrol and Mishra [1958] also re-wrote Bonner’s field equations with the help of the connections defined earlier by Bose [1953a and 1954]. In another paper [Kaul and Mishra 1958], Mishra generalized Veblen’s identities to mixed geometry with asymmetric connection, where the authors obtained 4 identities containing 8 terms each and with a mixture of ±-derivatives. It is proper, now, to reflect Goenner’s overall impression on Mishra’s work on UFT – “From my point of view as a historian of physics, R. S. Mishra’s papers are exemplary for estimable applied mathematics uncovering some of the structures of affine and/or mixed geometry without leading to further progress in the physical comprehension of unified field theory” [2014, 158]. Such a comment is certainly praise-worthy.

One can mention a bit about Mishra’s position in India. Mishra was Professor and Head of the Department of Mathematics at Gorakhpur (1958-1963) and Allahabad (1963-1968) Universities; then Head of the Department of Mathematics and Statistics at Banaras Hindu University in Varanasi from 1968 till retirement in 1978. Subsequently he was Vice-Chancellor of University of Kanpur during 1978-1980 and Lucknow University, his own alma mater, during 1982-1985. He was Visiting Professor, besides Indiana University, to Kuwait University, University of Waterloo, and University of Windsor. He was an invited participant in ‘International Conference on General Relativity and Gravitation (GR 6)’ at Copenhagen during 1971, and also (GR 7) at Tel Aviv during 1974. In India, he held various positions in academic and professional bodies. He has guided more than 50 students for PhD and DSc Degrees, published more than 300 papers and won many awards including Fellowship of almost all the established academic bodies in India. Books published by Mishra are – Structures in a Differentiable Manifold in 1978, Structures on a Differentiable Manifold and Their Applications in 1984, Almost Contact Metric Manifolds and Hyper-surfaces of Almost Hermitian Manifolds both in 1994. The Government of India has honored him with the fourth best civilian Award – Padmashree.

Jogesh Chandra Pati

This name does not appear in Goenner’s review. It may be because his research on UFT started with his paper along with the Pakistani Nobel Laureate Abdus Salam in 1974 only, much after ca. 1930 – 1965 [Pati and Salam 1974]. Actually during 1974 only, Glashow and Howard Mason Georgi III brought out what is called the Georgi-Glashow model, the first Grand Unified Theory (GUT). According to Goenner, in the beginning, GUTs were ‘unifying only the electromagnetic, weak, and strong interactions’ that is ‘with gauge group SU (5)’ [2014, 195]. They would have observable effects for energies much above 100 GeV.

Subsequently, many proposals for GUT have emerged; one of them is the Pati-Salem Model. (Jogesh) Pati (1937-), an Indian-American theoretical physicist, has contributed substantially in collaboration with Abdus Salam to formulate a GUT proposal called Pati-Salam model. John Ellis, from the Theoretical Physics Division of CERN, reports – ‘Even before the discovery of neutral currents, the restless spirit of Abdus Salam have led him and Jogesh Pati to propose the idea of grand unification of the strong and electroweak interactions –. They are the first to propose, in a motivated way, that quarks and leptons should be treated together in a common theory’ [1996, 3]. The specialty of the Pati-Salem model is its suggestions: (i) the symmetry of SU (4)-color, (ii) left-right symmetry, and (iii) the associated existence of right-handed neutrinos. They provide some of the crucial ingredients for understanding the observed masses of the neutrinos and their oscillations. After discoveries of gauge coupling unification and neutrino-oscillation, Pati himself says – ‘(I) in this context, it is remarked that with neutrino masses and coupling unification revealed, the discovery of proton decay, that remains as the missing link, should not be far behind’ [1998, 1]. Alas, after so many years, proton decay still remains eluded.

Overall, contributions of Indian researchers, as marked above, in moderate words, can be said as commendable. Goenner has once identified five major groups working on UFT in the world through his own words – ‘(T)the work done in the major “groups” lead by Einstein, Schrodinger, Lichnerowicz, Tonnelat, and Hlavaty —’ [2014, 10]. In case of Indian researchers also, it can be said that five major groups lead by Bose, Bandyopadhyay, Rao, Mishra, and Pati have contributed to UFT.

Conclusion

A brief account of contributions of Indian researchers to UFT research is given. The contribution started with Satyendra Nath Bose in the early 1950s, incidentally, he shared some of the results with Einstein himself who gladly responded with his observations. The other leading researchers were Gaganbihari Bandyopadhyay, J. R. Rao, whose own PhD thesis was on this subject and was highlighted in the IIT Kharagpur Foundation (USA) Newsletter during 2024 (after 62 years of PhD defense in 1962), Ratna Shanker Mishra, who availed the opportunity to work with Professor Hlavaty at Indiana University, and the USA based Jogesh Chandra Pati. Indian contribution to UFT research may be termed commendable, though, similar to Einstein’s original work, this research falls short of achieving a complete unification of forces, leaving the field open for future exploration.

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Ancient Indian Thought Contributing to The Field of Mathematics and Science

Niranjan Barik — Sat, 02 May 2026 04:19:38 +0000

“Many of the advances in the Sciences that we consider today to have been made in Europe were in fact made in India, centuries ago.”

Grant Duff

British Historian

Abstract

Ancient India was a land of free-flowing ideas and thoughts in all possible directions about all possible aspects of the inner as well as the outer world making the Indian civilization as one of the unique civilizations in the world with a vibrant and comprehensive tradition of spiritual as well as natural science. The sages and seers of this land who contributed to this rich culture as great thinkers were also scholars and scientists in their capacity. Almost all the prime aspects of human knowledge apart from spirituality like mathematics, astronomy, physics, chemistry, medicine and the practical procedures in which this knowledge was put into practice like metallurgy, architecture, shipbuilding and surgery etc. were covered in great detail by this science and technology in ancient India. Intrinsic fundamental concepts and principles of modern science have been provided with a foundation by these numerous postulates and scientific methods. While some of these ground breaking contributions have been acknowledged by the world body, some are still unknown to most.

Here in this article, we would discuss the contributions to the field of Mathematics and Physics.

Key Words: Ancient Indian scientific thought, Origins of mathematics in India, Concept of zero and decimal system, Vedic and classical scientific knowledge, Contributions to astronomy and physics, Integration of philosophy and science.

Mathematics

It is now generally accepted that India is the birthplace of several mathematical concepts including ‘zero’, numerical notations, decimal system, binary numbers; Fibonacci numbers, square root, cube root of numbers, algebra, algorithms, studies of infinite series, convergence, differentiation and iterative methods of solving nonlinear equations, ideas of calculus as well as geometry etc. Will Durant, an American historian (1885-1981) said that India is the mother of a lot of our mathematical concepts and philosophy. L. Basam, the Australian Indologist writes in his book “The miracle that India was…” that the world owes most to India in the field of mathematics to a level more advanced than that achieved by any other nation of antiquity. The success of Indian mathematics was primarily due to the fact that the Indian thought system was of a very high level in abstractions to think beyond the numerical quantity of objects and conceive clearly the abstract numbers. They could conceptualize the implication and significance of the most abstract entity in mathematics such as zero and infinity in its metaphysical forms as ‘Sunya’ and ‘Ananta’, which was very unique to Indian Culture. They invented the base ten number system with zero as a number, so as to be able to introduce numbers smaller than the smallest (called in Sanskrit as ‘Anoraniyan’) as well as numbers larger than the largest (called in Sanskrit as Mahato-mahiyan) which they needed to describe Nature with all its aspects starting with particles like atoms (Anus) to celestial bodies and the universe at large. The religious texts of the Vedic period provide evidence for the use of large numbers. Yajurveda Samhita (1200-900 BCE) mentions in its sacred mantra recitation at the end of food numbers invoking powers of ten from hundred (102) to an oblation rite (Anna-homa) as well as during asvamedha, trillion (1012) and beyond. Thus, the roots of mathematics in ancient India can be traced back to the Vedic era as old as about 4000 years. Between 1000 BC to 1000 AD; a number of mathematical treatises had been written in India

One of the greatest and most important inventions of human mind is the concept of zero which owes its origin to the Indian Philosophy in connection with the idea of ‘Sunya’ which literally means void or nothingness that stands for the un-manifested unit source of all creations, the embodiment of infinite potentialities and the ground of being as depicted in the Vedic cosmology in the hymns of Nasadiya Sukta in Rig Veda. ‘Zero’ has emerged as a derivative symbol to represent this concept. The concept of ‘Sunyata’ or nothingness was also integral to Buddhist thinking according to Nagarjuna’s Sunyavada. This was an idea which no western mathematician had ever thought of. Mathematician Aryabhatta of 5th Century AD, was the first person to use this present-day symbol (0) for zero as a number and a digit, whereas a small black circular patch () was used as a symbol of zero earlier. As early as 500 BC, Indians had also developed for each number from one to nine, a system of different symbols instead of alphabetic representations. By including the symbol of zero along with these nine symbols, Indians developed the ingenious method of writing a number, no matter how large or how small, only with these ten symbols. Aryabhatta in his Aryabhattiya has stated “Sthanat Sthanam Dasa Gunam Syat” which means from place to place each digit has a value ten times that of the preceeding one. In this system, called the ‘decimal system’, each digit while having its absolute value, receives its place value according to its position as well. Due to the simplicity of this decimal notation, it facilitated mathematical operations such as addition and subtraction etc. under the efforts of Aryabhatta. One of the earliest written evidence of the decimal place value system with the use of zero can be found in the Jaina cosmological text ‘Lokavibhaga’ written by the Jaina muni Saruanandin in 458AD (Saka era 380). In this text shunya (void) has been used to refer to zero. Laplace, the French mathematician and Philosopher therefore wrote – “The ingenious method of expressing every possible number using a set of ten symbols (each symbol having a place value and an absolute value) emerged in India. The idea seems so simple now-a-days that its significance is no longer appreciated. Its simplicity lies in a way it facilitated calculation and placed arithmetic foremost amongst useful inventions. The importance of this invention is more readily appreciated when one considers that it was beyond the two greatest men of antiquity Archimedes and Apollonius.”

This decimal system made arithmetic quite useful in practical inventions much faster and easier. Therefore, Albert Einstein also once remarked with his acknowledgement that – “We owe a lot to the ancient Indians, teaching us how to count, without which most modern scientific discoveries would have been impossible.” This statement can be well appreciated if we just recollect the string of alpha-numeric Roman numbers having no zero and place value system to understand their limitations. Indian mathematicians invented negative numbers as well. Acharya Pingala; the Vedic scholar of 3rd or 2nd century BC was the author of the earliest known Sanskrit treatise on prosody (the study of poetic meters and verses) by the name ‘Chandah Sastra’. This treatise presents the first known description of the binary numerical system in connection with the systematic enumeration of meters with fixed patterns of shorts (laghu) and long (guru) syllables. In modern discussions binary numbers are usually represented by using zero (0) and one (1). Pingala’s notation was similar to Morse Code and he used the Sanskrit word ‘Sunya’ explicitly to refer to zero. This concept of binary numbers represented by ‘1’ and ‘0’ has now formed the corner stones of basic language for computer programs. Pingala is also credited with his work on Pascal’s triangle (called meruprastara) as well as materials related to Fibonacci numbers called ‘Matrameru’. Later on, the methods for the formation of these numbers in the sequence as (1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13 ……) and their implications were developed by mathematicians Virahanka, Gopala and Hemachandra, much before the Italian Mathematician Leonardo Fibonacci introduced this fascinating sequence to the western world in 13th century. Following the only method of the oral tradition of the time for the propagation of knowledge, be it spiritual or scientific, the sages, seers and scholars composed slokas in poetic styles in Sanskrit according to the rules prescribed in Sanskrit prosody described in ‘Chanda Shastra’ of Pingal. This methodology was based on natural rhythms and arrangement of tones such that the ‘Slokas’ so composed would be pleasing to the ears and easy to be remembered for a long time. Thus, mathematical concepts and formulas including various ideas were written down as meaningful syllables in verses and slokas. Indians therefore invented the ‘Katapayadi’ system, where even mathematical numbers could be transcribed as words or verses.

Indian number systems, as it is believed, probably arrived in the Arab world in 773 CE with the diplomatic mission sent by Hindu rulers of Sind to the court of Caliph Al-Mansur and subsequently through the Arabic traders. This gave rise to the famous arithmetical text written by Al-Khwarizmi in around 820 CE, which contains a detailed exposition of Indian Mathematics including usefulness of zero. Al-Khwarizmi was a Persian Mathematician who developed a technique of calculation that became known as ‘algorism’. In fact, in 7th century CE, Brahmagupta developed the ‘Chakravala Method’ to solve indeterminate quadratic equations including Pell’s equation. This method identified as a cyclic algorithm now was later generalized for a wider range of equations by Jayadeva and was further refined by Bhaskara-II in his mathematical treatise ‘Bijaganita’. Algebraic theories as well as other mathematical concepts that were prevalent in ancient India were collected and further developed by the famous Indian Mathematician Aryabhatta in 5th century CE, who lived in Pataliputra, the present-day Patna in Bihar. His treatise on Mathematics is the ‘Aryabhattiya’. Aryabhatta (466-550 CE) in his Aryabhattiya described important fundamental principles of mathematics in 332 slokas covering areas like algebra, arithmetic, trigonometry etc. He obtained the value of ‘ π’ correct upto four decimal places. The Kerala Mathematician Nilakantha at subsequent times wrote sophisticated explanations of irrationality of’ π’ before the west had heard of the concept. The classical period between 400-1600 CE is often known as the golden age of Indian Mathematics. This period saw Mathematicians such as Aryabhatta-I, Varahamihira, Brahmagupta, Bhaskar-I, Bhaskara-II, Madhava of Sangamagrama and Nilakantha Somayaji and many others. The treatise by the Persian mathematician Al-Khwarizmi which contained all these developments with due credits to these Indian sources, was translated into Latin under the title ‘Algorithm’s de numero Indorum’ meaning the system of Indian numerals. A Mathematican in Arabic is called Hindsa, which means from India. The technique of calculation developed by Al-as ‘algorism’ later became the germ for the modern computer algorithms. The ‘Bakhshali manuscripts’ of seventy birch bark leaves dating back to the early 7th centuries of the Christian era discovered in 1881 in the village Bakhshali near Peshawar (of modern-day Pakistan) reveals Indian achievements with knowledge of fractions, simultaneous equations, quadratic equations, geometric progression and even Khwarizmi, known originally calculations of profit and loss etc.

Our forefathers can also be credited for their knowledge in geometry, trigonometry and in some way calculus as well. 14th century Kerali Mathematician Madhava along with others of his Kerala School, studied infinite series, differentials and iterative methods for solving non-linear equations and examined methods and ideals relating to differential calculus. Jyesthadeva (1500-1576 AD) of the Kerala School wrote ‘Yuktibhasa’ in malayalum language comprising all these ideas. Jyesthadeva presented proofs of most mathematical theorems and infinite series discovered earlier by Madhava and other Kerala School Mathematicians. In fact the landmark in Indian Mathematics was the development of the series expansions for trigonometric functions like sine, cosine and arc-tangent etc by the mathematicians of Kerala school in 15th century CE. These remarkable works developed two centuries before the invention of calculus in Europe by Isaac Newton and Leibnitz, provided what is now considered as the first examples of power series. However, they did not formulate a systematic theory of differentiation and integration.

It would be worthwhile to mention about the Sulba Sutras, composed between 800 BC to 500 BC in Vedic Sanskrit mainly for a single theological requirement with rules for construction of sacrificial fire-altars. There are three Sulba Sutras out of which the best known is Boudhayana Sulba sutra composed by Baudhayana during 8th century BCE, which contains examples of Pythagorean triples such as: (3, 4, 5), (5, 12, 13), (8, 15, 17), (7, 24, 25) and (12, 35, 37). This also contains a statement of the Pythagorean theorem for the sides of the square as “The rope which is stretched across the diagonal of a square produces an area double the size of the original square.” It also has a similar statement for the sides of a rectangle as “The rope stretched along the length of the diagonal of a rectangle makes an area which the horizontal and the vertical sides make together”. Baudhayana also gives an expression for the square root of two accurate up to five decimal places of the true value 1.41421356…. The other two Sulba Sutras are the Manava Sulba Sutra composed by Manava (750-650 BCE) and the other Apastamba Sulba Sutra, composed by Apastamba (600 BCE) with contents similar to Baudhayana Sulba Sutra. It has been found that the Babylonian cuneiform tablet ‘Plimpta – 322’ written around 1850 BCE, contains fifteen Pythagorean triples with quite large entries (13500, 12709, 18541). This indicates that there was also sophisticated understanding of the topic in Mesopotamia in 1850 BCE. Since these tablets predate the Sulba Sutras period by several centuries, taking into account this contextual appearance of some triples, it may be reasonable to expect that similar understanding would have been there in India. As the main objective of Sulba Sutras was to describe the construction of sacrificial fire-altars and the geometric principles involved in them, the subject of Pythagorean triples, even if it has been understood with its basic principles, many still not have featured in detail with the general proof in Sulba Sutras. This could have been due to the style of exposition demanded by the ancient oral tradition. Hence ‘Sutras’ adopted extreme brevity by expressing everything in a highly compressed form through multiple means. With the increasing complexity of mathematics and other branches of science like Astronomy, both writing and computation were required. Consequently, many mathematical works began to be written down in manuscripts to be copied from generation to generation.

India today has the largest body of hand-written reading materials comprising about several million manuscripts of prose commentaries and treatises. Then only derivations and proofs became favored. Thus Bhaskara-II (1114-1185 CE) in his Lilavati Bhasya, Bijaganita and Griha Ganitam that he wrote, had given a proof of the Pythagorean theorem. He had also conceived of differential calculus with concepts of derivatives, differential co-efficient. He had also stated Rolle’s theorem, a special case of mean value theorem which is one of most important theorems of calculus and analysis. Bhaskara-II had also developed the concept of infinity.

Physics

From the Vedic times around 3000 BC to 1000 BC ancient Indian sages and scholars ventured to analyze and understand the physical structure of the world. They considered that the material world of living and non-living bodies in their gross structure are constituted holistically by five basic elements called ‘Pancha Mahabhootas’ such as Khiti (earth), Apa (water), Teja (fire/energy), Marut (air), Vyoma (ether/space). They were associated with the five human sense perceptions such as earth with smell, air with feeling, fire with vision, water with taste and ether or space with sound. These ancient Indian Philosophers believed that except for ether/space, all other elements were physically palpable and hence composed of minuscule particles of matter. The last miniscule particle of matter which could not be further subdivided was termed as ‘paramanu’, the synonym for the Greek word ‘atom’. These Philosophers considered these atoms to be indestructible and hence eternal. However, in a later time the Buddhists believed atoms to be minute objects invisible to the naked eye which come into being and vanish in an instant like flares. The Vaisheshika school of Philosophers believed the atoms are mere points in space. As these concepts were based on logical analysis and abstract speculation but not on experimentation or personal observations, they are greatly abstract and enmeshed with philosophy as well. The school of Philosophy which contributed to the development of the ideas of ‘atom’ was the Vaisheshika School described earlier in chapter-4. Sage Kashyap known as Kanada Muni of 6th century BC, who composed the Vaisheshika Sutra, was the proponent of this idea. Another Indian Philosopher, a contemporary of Gautam Buddha, Pakudha Kaccayana had also propounded ideas about the atomic constitution of the material world.

Adherents of the Vaisheshika School of Philosophy founded by Kanada considered the atoms to be minute objects invisible to the naked eye and atoms of the same substance combined with each other to produce dyanuka (diatomic molecule) and tryanuka (triatomic molecules). They also believed that atoms could be combined in various ways to produce chemical changes in the presence of other factors such as heat. As an example of such a phenomenon, Kanada cited the blackening of earthen pots and ripening of fruit etc. According to Kanada, each substance is supposed to consist of four kinds of atoms out of which two kinds possess mass and the other two without mass.

Apart from the atomic postulations, Kanada also had ideas regarding the motion and rest of objects suggesting probably the same laws of motion attributed to Newton in the seventeenth century CE; more than two thousand years after him. This is because one finds in the Vaisheshika sutras, the verses regarding motion of objects as follows: –

“Vegah Nimitta Visheshat Karmano Jayate;

Vegah Nimittapekshyat Karmano Jayate,

Niyatadika kriya Prabandha Hetu,

Vegah Samayoga vishesha birodhi.”

This means action on objects generates motion. The external action being in a direction causes the motion in the same direction. An equal and opposite action can neutralize the motion.

In the fifth chapter of Vaisheshika Sutra, Kanada mentions various empirical observations on natural phenomena such as falling of objects to the ground, rising of fire and heat upwards, the growth of grass upwards, the nature of rainfall and thunderstorms, the flow of liquids, the movement towards a magnet and many other such cases and inquisitively searches why these things happen. Thus, it seems physics was central to Kanada’s assertion that all that is knowable is based on motion and therefore he attempted to integrate his observation with his ideas on atoms, molecules and their interactions in some rudimentary level.

In fact, Rig Veda asserted that gravitation is the cause that is responsible for holding the universe together. This was some twenty-four centuries before the anecdotal apple fell on Newton’s head. The notion of gravitation or gurutrakarshan is found in Siddhantas, the world’s earliest texts on astronomy and mathematics. ‘Siddhanta Siromani’ is one such text written by Bhaskara-II (1114-1185 CE) in which one can find the mention of gurutvakarshana in its Goladdhyaya-Bhubanakosha chapter as:

“Marudhalo Bhurachala Swabhabato yato

Bichitrabata-bastu Saktyah.

Aakrustisaktischa mahitaya yat khastam,

Gurutwabhimukham Swasakttya.

Akrudayate Tatpattobabhati

Samasamntat kwa patatwiyam khe.”

This means that each has the power of attraction by which it attracts material bodies towards it and so material bodies fall down on earth, when this power of attraction is uniform in all directions in the sky, then no object falls.

For this reason, the planetary systems and other stars and planets maintain their locations and motion in the sky. It has also been said that prior to Bhaskara-II, it was Varahamihira (505-587 CE), another Astronomer and mathematician of Siddhantic tradition who thought of the concept of gravity by claiming that there must be a force which might be keeping bodies stuck to earth and also keeping the heavenly bodies at specific places. Brahmagupta, another well-known mathematician of the 7th century had also commented on the concept of gravity as “Bodies fall towards the earth as it is like the earth to attract bodies, just as it is like water to flow.” Therefore Dick Teresi, the American writer of the book ‘Lost Discoveries’, a comprehensive study of the ancient non-western foundation of modern sciences, spells out clearly as:

“Two hundred years before Phythagoras,

Philosophers in northern India had

understood that gravitation held

the solar system together, and that

therefore the Sun, the most massive object,

Had to be at its centre.”

Aryabhatta, the one credited with the discovery of zero as the numeral, was also the first individual in 499 CE to explain that the daily rotation of the earth on its axis is the reason for the daily rising and setting of the Sun. Thus, he was the proponent of the helio-centric theory for the solar system. He conceived of the elliptical orbits of the planets thousand years before Kepler in the West assumed planetary orbits to be circular. Aryabhatta even came to the same conclusion. Before Kepler, Europeans estimated the value of the year as 365 days, six hours, 12 minutes and 30 seconds, only a few minutes off from the present correct value (365 days and six hours). This mathematical genius also made predictions of the solar and lunar eclipses as well as estimated the distance between the earth and the moon. The translation of Aryabhattiya into Latin in the thirteenth century taught Europeans a great deal revealing to them that Indians had known things that Europe would learn only a millennium after.

The Vedic civilization subscribed to the idea of a spherical earth at a time when everyone else, even the Greeks; assumed the earth to be flat. By the fifth century CE, Indians had calculated that the age of the earth was 4.3 billion years. But as late as the nineteenth century, English scientists believed the earth to be only a million years old. It is only in the late twentieth century that the western scientists have come to estimate it to be 4.6 billion years. This was in the aftermath of the first American Apollo mission to the moon that brought back the moon-rock to be analyzed to give this result which was highlighted in 1969 in American media comparing this outcome with ancient India’s almost accurate estimate.

There has been ample archeological evidence for ancient India’s use of ‘practical mathematics’ not only in measuring time on the basis of periodical cosmic events like earth’s rotation or orbital motion etc. but also in standardized measurements for weights as well as length. Excavations at Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro and other sites of Indus Valley Civilization have uncovered bricks whose dimensions were in proportion 4:2:1; considered favorable for the stability of brick structures. People of Indus Valley civilization used the standardized system of weights based on the ratios: 120, 110, 15, 12, 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 200 and 500 with the unit weight equaling approximately 28 grams (approximately equal to one British Ounce). They mass produced weights in regular geometric shapes such as hexahedra, barrels, cones, and cylinders using their basic knowledge of geometry. They also used standardized measurement of length to a high degree of accuracy. They designed a ruler, the Mahenjodaro ruler, whose unit of length was approximately 1.32 inches or 3.4 cm which was divided into ten equal parts. The bricks manufactured at that time often had dimensions that were integral multiples of this unit of length. Hollow cylindrical objects made of shell and found at Lothal (2200 BCE) and Dholavira are demonstrated to also have the ability to also measure the angles in a plane as well as to measure the position of stars for navigation.

It is quite amazing to find that ancient Indians starting from the Vedic era had introduced various names for the units and sub-units of length or distance as well as time. As for example the Mokshya dharma parva of Shanti Parva in Mahabharat describes the units of time including Nimisha as follows. Accordingly, 1 diva Ratri (Day-Night) which is 24 hours as we know today was divided into 30 Muhurtas, I Muhurta was 30.3 kala; 1 kala was 30 kashta; 1 kasta was 15 Nimisha. 1 Nimisha is the time duration for the wink of an eye; which from the above relations can be worked out to be a recursive decimal in seconds as:

1 Nimisha = 0.2112, second.

Similarly, a unit measure of length or distance was taken as a ‘Yojana’, which has been defined in Vishnu Purana (Chapter 6 of Book 1) an ancient Vedic text in the following manner. If one starts with a standard subunit of length measure to be 1 Angula (1 finger length approximately 4 inch) then 6 Angula is 1 Pada, 2 Pada is 1 Vitasti, 2 Vitasti is 1 Hasta (cubit = 1½ feet), 4 Hastas is 1 Danda or Purusha (a man’s height = 6 ft), 2000 Dandas is 1 Gavyutis (distance to which a cow’s mowing can be heard = 12000 ft) and 4 Gavyutis is 1 Yojana which is approximately 9.09 miles. Working downwards from 1 Angula, the further sub-units are also defined in the following manners. 1 Angula which is 1.89 cm is 10 Yavas (barley grain of middle size), 1 Yava is 10 Yavodaras (heart of barely), 1 Yavodara is 10 Yukas, 1 Yuka is 10 Likhsha, 1 Likhsha is 10 Balagras (Hair’s tip), 1 Balagra is 10 Mahirajas, 1 Mahiraja (Particle of dust) is 10 Trasarenu, 1 Trasarenu is 10 Parasukshma, 1 Parasukshma is 10 Paramanu. Thus, one can find out a rough estimate of the atomic dimension to be 1.89x10cm which is rather one order of magnitude smaller than what we know today in Physics to be of the order of Angstrom units (108cm) However there is another quite interesting estimate one can arrive at regarding the speed of light on the basis of a Rigvedic hymn (50th hymn in book 1 of Rig Veda), which is:

Taranir Vishvadarshato Jyotishkradasi Surya

Vishvama bhaasirochanam

Tatha cha Smaryate yojanam

Shahasre dve dve sate dve cha yojana

Ekena niminshardhena kramamana.”

Which means;

“Swift and all beautiful art thou

O’ Surya, maker of the light;

Illuminating all the radiant realm.

It is remembered here that this light

traverses 2202 Yojanas in half a nimisha.”

Sayanacharya, who was a minister in the court of Buka of the great Vijaya nagar empire of Karnataka in South India in early 14th century commenting on this verse in his Rigvedic commentary has pointed out its significance in estimating the speed of light. If one takes the time unit Nimisha = 0.2112 second and the distance unit Yojana = 9.09 miles as found according to the above-mentioned ancient texts; then 2202 yojana in 1½ Nimisha of travelling would mean a speed of light 2202 x 9.09 miles per 0.1056 seconds. Which means the speed of light so calculated would be:

c = 2202 x 9.09 0.1056 = miles/second

= 189547 miles / second

As per the presently known value of the speed of light, c=186000 miles/second. This is amazingly so close to the accurate value that was revealed to our ancestors several thousand years before modern science could realize it through centuries of various attempts using different experimental techniques besides the theoretical calculation based on Maxwell’s identification of light as an electromagnetic wave.

Reference

Basam A. L, The wonder that was India, Rupa & Co., New Delhi (1971).
Bose, D. M, Sen S. N, Subbarayappa B. V, A concise history of Science in India; Indian National Science Academy, New Delhi (1971).
Joseph G.G, Crest of the Peacock, Non-European roots of Mathematics, Princeton University Press (2000).
Puthaswamy T. K, Mathematical achievements of Pre-modern Indian Mathematics, Elsevier (2012).
Teresi Dick, Lost Discoveries: The Ancient Roots of Modern science from the Babylonians to the Maya, Simon & Schuster, New York (2002).

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Analysis of Polarization and Scattering of Light Through the New Particle Concept

Bishnu Charanarbinda Mohanty — Sat, 02 May 2026 04:13:55 +0000

Abstract

The particle-based concept of light presents itself as a physical process in the reality-oriented framework. In contrast, the conventional wave description of light particularly in the absence of a tangible propagation medium raises fundamental conceptual concerns and may be regarded as hypothetical in nature. A natural question arises: if the particle concept of light reflects physical reality, why does it struggle to adequately explain key optical phenomena such as constant velocity, refraction, diffraction, interference and polarisation? The limitation, however, does not necessarily lie in the particle concept itself, but rather in the oversimplified characterization of light particles as a structureless entity. When light is treated merely as a massless, chargeless point-like quantum of energy, essential parameters such as internal structure, intrinsic properties and interaction mechanisms are neglected factors that may play a decisive role in governing optical phenomena. In the proposed framework, light particles are not abstract quanta but entities belonging to a micro-micro domain of matter possessing finite mass (expressed in a photonic mass unit), non-electric form of charge (quantified in a photonic charge unit) and having internal structure comprising nucleus and extranuclear space structure, analogous in principle to atomic systems. Just as an atom is ionized by loss of electrons when excited in excess of ionization potential, a light particle moving at high velocity is postulated to lose negatively charged sub-photonic constituents from its orbital structure. As a result, light particles in motion carry a net positive photonic charge. The propagation medium is also re-envisioned as a structured entity composed of space matter particles spanning multiple domains, existing in both neutral and ionized states. This medium is capable of supporting distinct, mutually non-interacting charge fields including both conventional electric fields and non-electric (photonic) charge fields similar to those observed in the Earth’s atmosphere and ionosphere. Light particles, endowed with photonic charge, interact dynamically with the photonic charge fields of the medium through field-particle interactions. The naturally existing charge field in a homogeneous medium is largely inconsequential. However, at interfaces of different mediums, strong photonic potential gradients emerge, leading to highly polarized charge structures. The zero thickness of the interface in the macro domain scale becomes significantly large when expressed in the micro-micro domain scale, allowing a meaningful dynamic of the light particles within the interface medium.

Within this conceptual framework the author has already justified the fundamental optical phenomena including constant velocity, reflection, refraction, grazing incidence, diffraction and interference through consistent physical mechanisms. Following the new concept of light particle and the medium, the present work addresses the phenomenon of polarisation and proposes a coherent mechanism for the scattering of light.

Keywords: Polarization and scattering of light, Structured particle model of photons, Photonic charge dynamics, Sub-photonic particles (pholetrons), Field–particle interaction in medium, Interface-induced charge polarization.

Introduction

The interaction of a particle with a medium is a function of the structure and state property of the particle as well as those of the medium. In the new concept light particles (photons) have nucleus and extra-nuclear space structure with space matter particles and orbital particles (say pholetrons) Fig.1. The newly proposed terminology of pholetrons in photonic structure has similarity with the electron in atomic structure. The light particles carry absolute photonic charge by virtue of non-equilibrium mass-space association [1]. The local charge state of a medium though has an absolute value but is considered zero in relative scale for local charge activity of light particles. A light particle having the absolute potential same as the local space potential of the surrounding medium behaves neutral to the space matter particles of the medium. A light particle carrying charge at higher absolute potential than the absolute charge potential state of the medium is considered as positively charged photon and that carrying charge at lower absolute potential than the charge potential state of the medium is characterised as negatively charged photon in a relative charge potential scale where the absolute charge state of the medium is taken as zero. A photon at zero relative charge potential with reference to the charge potential of the local medium is in neutral to the local medium which is erroneously characterised as neutral matter in absolute sense. The so-called zero potential of neutral matter has a definite absolute charge potential and different relative charge potentials in different relative scales having different reference zero potentials. The above charge characterisation and the concept of neutral particles apply equally to electric and photonic charges in their respective domains [2]. A positive charge potential of one relative scale may become negative in another relative scale and vice versa, however, the absolute charge potential is always positive. The dimensional ranges of different charge interactions are different hence one type of charge doesn’t interact with another type of charge. A space medium associated with a celestial body contains space matter particles of different domains, hence different types of charge fields such as electric, photonic etc. are feasible in the atmosphere of a celestial body [3]. But the space medium of inter atomic space doesn’t contain electric charge bearing micro particles. A space medium in macro scale can have many varieties of charge field present in it and the fields in space medium can interact preferentially with the charge particles of different domains carrying different nature of charge. The electric charge field formed by photonic charge particles (micro-micro domain particles) carrying photonic charge and the photonic charge field is formed by micro-photonic charge particles carrying micro-photonic charge. In view of the above, a space medium/ vacuum, devoid of known form of matter, contains space matter particles of finer domains with multiple charge fields present in it. Any one aspect of study of the space medium introduces erroneous concepts of the space medium. Lack of perception to particles of finer and finer domains and the presence of different nature of charge fields compels one to make abrupt quantum assumptions on the features of particles and the fields as the fundamental unit of existence in nature. Thus, the physical perception of one type of particle or one type of field in a medium lead to an aspect-based conclusion of the reality and not the comprehensive reality of nature. This is something like the well-known story of perception of an elephant gained by six blind persons by touching different parts of the elephant.

The nucleus of a light particle carries positive photonic charge and the orbital pholetrons carry negative photonic charge. A photon at rest or in slow motion is in neutral state since the positive charge of the nucleus is equal to the collective negative photonic charge of the pholetrons. The neutral photon can be ionized by attachment or detachment of negative charge particles (pholetrons). The light particle at the speed of light has kinetic energy in excess of ionization potential where few pholetrons are detached from its extra nuclear space structure. The loss of pholetrons from extra nuclear space structures makes the light particle positively charged. Thus, the light particles are always positively charged in their motion through a medium except their transit through the interface where both types of ionic states of photon are feasible due to increase and decrease of velocity. The positively charged particle when passing through the charge polarised interface structure experiences a different nature of field-particle interaction.

Discussion

An examination to the atmosphere of the earth reveals that any local pocket of the atmosphere mostly contains neutral atoms (atoms at same absolute charge potential as that of the space potential of the locality), however, the space medium also contains charge particles (ions and free electrons of different number density depending on the levels of the atmosphere) [4]. The extra nuclear space structures of atoms and molecules as well as the inter atomic/inter molecular space contains photons in neutral and charge states. The photons within the extra nuclear space structure of the atoms/molecules remain in bound state whereas the photons present in inter-atomic/inter-molecular space are free photons in neutral and charge states. The micro domain space matter particles (molecular, atomic and sub-atomic) are nearly absent in vacuum and space medium but the said medium is full with particles of micro-micro domain and below. Like the presence of electric charge particles in the atmosphere of a celestial body, the space and vacuum mediums also contain non-electric ionic particles of finer domain. The gradient of the number density of different ionic particles in a medium justifies the presence of electric and non-electric charge fields in it. A light particle (positively charged photon) while passing through a medium interacts with the standing potential structure of the medium where its trajectory continuously changes its direction due to local interaction. The extent of field-particle interaction is a function of the duration of spatial exposure-time. A high-speed charge particle travelling through a field has less exposure to field particle interaction due to small spatial residence time and a slow speed charge particle moving through the same field experiences prolonged spatial interaction due to longer exposure. The light particle carrying positive charge is accelerated and decelerated in the medium depending on the nature of the field Fig.2 [5]. Photonic charge field is invariably present in the charge polarised interface structure. Positively charged photons are decelerated in a photonic charge field with increasing potential. If the field barrier is strong enough, the kinetic energy of a light particle (photon) gets fully utilized before completely overcoming the field barrier where the velocity becomes zero. Thereafter, it moves backward due to the reverse nature of charge potential gradient as it happens in reflection [6]. For transmitted light, the velocity of the light particles undergoes speed reduction where the residence time of light particles in a spatial location in the field is increased at decreased speed. In reflection of light, when the velocity of a light particle approaches zero, the light particle gets plenty of opportunity to capture sub-photonic particles (pholetrons) carrying negative photonic charge thereby attaining different ionic states. In case of transmitted light, the light particles overcome the field barrier and enter into the second medium, however the velocity of light particles is reduced. The low velocity points are also prone to attachment of negatively charged sub-photonic particles (pholetrons) and the change of charge state of light particles. The emergent light particle from a polarizing transparent medium has a different charge state than that of the incident light particle due to the said attachment process. Charge polarisation of light particles is feasible subject to availability of free charge particles in the medium. Polarisation of light particles is also feasible by orientation of spin direction.

Factors promoting attachment of charge particles with positively charged photon in charge polarisation of light

Light particles have very-very small dimensions therefore, head-on collision among photons is rare. According to the new concept the light particles are particles of micro-micro domain carrying positive photonic charge and having nuclei and extra nuclear space structure [2] [3]. Since light particles carry photonic charge in very-very small dimension, the short-range interaction of photonic charge can be expressed in micro-micro domain scale only. Due to photonic charge interaction the collision cross-section is much larger than the dimension of the nucleus. If the density of negatively charged sub-photonic particles (pholetrons) in the medium is very low then the positively charged photon may not collide even if the collision cross-section of photon is large. If there is no collision, then there is no change in the photonic charge state of the light particle by attachment implying no polarisation of light. If all the emergent light particles take part in attachment of pholetrons, then there is 100 percent polarisation of light. The condition affecting the degree of polarisation is discussed subsequently.

The factors affecting degree of polarisation of light are 1) density of pholetrons in the medium, which is an inherent property of the structure of material and its surface. Thus, the polarizing materials having higher density of pholetrons in free state have scope of attachment with light particles by the collision process. 2) All collisions within the collision cross-section of the light particle may not lead to attachment since the negatively charged sub-photons (pholetrons) are required to reach the proximity of the light particle for the feasibility of attachment with the light particle. This requires a minimum exposure time period for acceleration of pholetrons in reaching the proximity of light particles, which is feasible only when the velocity of a light particle is sufficiently reduced or approaches zero in its transit.

Spin polarisation of light particle

During collision of pholetrons and other space matter particles of the medium with the light particle, a turning moment is produced on the light particle and the light particle begins to spin or changes the kinematics of spin if already spinning. Hence, the emergent polarised light particles additionally acquire the spin property which may promote or foul in entering the interface and the internal structure of the solid depending on the nature of spin of the inter-atomic cavity Fig.3.

Light particles emerging out of the interface at different velocities attains the terminal velocity of the space medium [7]. Hence, light can be polarised in the process of reflection and transmission and the polarised light particles have different states of charge potential and spin potential. The polarised light emerging out of an interface fails to penetrate another interface structure for onward transmission where it exhibits polarisation effect. All transparent materials and their surfaces are not polarizers because the availability of free pholetrons in larger numbers is a criterion for polarisation of light, thus only some materials are polarizers. Hence, polarization of light is a structure dependent property of material and its interface.

Scattering of light

Light falling on an interface medium or transiting through a medium may get absorbed partly or fully in the medium where other characteristic charge particles of the medium are released to attain charge equilibrium. Thus, the characteristic property of scattered rays is different from the characteristic property of the incident ray. At present the characteristic property of light in the wave concept is given by frequency of wave which in the reality-based particle concept is expressed through the charge state property of the particle.

Conclusion

At present both the particle concept and the wave concept of light are absolutely required to understand different phenomena of light. Thus, duality of light is accepted as the inherent reality of nature. According to this author the wave concept of light without a tangible medium is not feasible therefore, all phenomena of light are required to be explained through the reality-based particle concept of light. The author has introduced the new structural concept of light particles with charge features and the fine structure of space mediums having field features. Using the new concepts of light particle and medium the author has successfully analysed and justified the constant velocity, rectilinear propagation, reflection, refraction, diffraction and interference phenomena of light. This paper explains polarisation and scattering phenomena of light from the same new concept of light particle and the medium. The revised particle concept of light is feasible, reality-based and capable of explaining all phenomena of light without duality.

Reference

https://philosophyofnature.org.in/electric-and-non-electric-charges-and-their-inter-conversion.
https://philosophyofnature.org.in/mass-space-structure-of-centrally-organized-systems.
https://philosophyofnature.org.in/different-domains-of-nature.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionosphere#:~:text=The%20ionosphere%20is%20a%20shell,referred%20to%20as%20the%20ionosphere.
Interference and Diffraction of light, Article-2, Issue-2, Volume-4, Towards Unifications of Sciences.
https://philosophyofnature.org.in/micro-micro-structure-of-interfaces-and-photonic-charge-field-a-reality-based-classical-explanation-of-reflection-and-refraction-of-light.
https://philosophyofnature.org.in/a-new-vision-of-light-and-space-the-cause-behind-constant-velocity.

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Interference and Diffraction of light

Bishnu Charanarbinda Mohanty — Sat, 02 May 2026 03:56:00 +0000

Abstract

Diffraction and interference are traditionally assumed to have been caused due to the wave nature of light. Within the framework of modern physics, these phenomena are explained using electromagnetic wave theory and the principle of wave superposition. However, this explanation rests on a fundamental assumption that electromagnetic waves can propagate through empty space without any physical medium. From a commonsense physical perspective, this assumption raises important conceptual difficulties. All known wave phenomena of nature essentially require a definite role of material medium possessing appropriate elastic properties to sustain oscillations for transmission of energy. Further the wave concept of light has limitations in explaining rectilinear propagation, quantum-level interactions where light behaves as particles, most notably the photoelectric effect. It also fails to account for Compton scattering (or Compton effect), black body radiation and the discrete emission spectra of atoms. The notion of a wave existing without medium, therefore appears physically unrealistic and invites reconsideration of the assumptions underlying the wave description of light. Alternatively upgrade the reality-based particle concept of light to justify partial reflection, partial refraction, interference, diffraction and polarization. The limitations of any one concept (particle or wave) in explaining all phenomena of light led scientists to accept both the theories and used them as per convenience. It is also unrealistic to accept duality as a reality of nature. The present author considers the wave theory of light is purely hypothetical and has little stand in real sense, therefore he has augmented the light particle associating tiny mass in photonic mass unit, non-electric charge and mass-space structure which has helped in explaining the dynamics of constant velocity in a medium, reflection, refraction through conventional dynamics. The conventional interface of zero thickness in macro domain scale has significantly large thickness having a photonic charged polarised structure. The light particle carrying positive photonic charge is accelerated in the photonic field with increasing space potential and is decelerated with decreasing space potential within the interface. On the basis of the new concept this paper presents a conceptual justification for interference and diffraction of light.

Keywords: Interference and diffraction of light, Particle-based light model, Photonic charge and mass, Structured space medium, Field–particle interaction, Interface polarization effects.

Introduction

The historical development of wave optics originally included the concept of a luminiferous medium, but this idea was largely abandoned following the rise of modern electromagnetic theory. As a result, diffraction and interference are interpreted today as purely wave-based phenomena arising from the spreading and superposition of electromagnetic fields. Nevertheless, several aspects of these phenomena, particularly the formation of discrete fringe structures and their dependence on boundary conditions, may also be examined from an alternative perspective that does not rely on the existence of self-propagating waves in empty space.

In this article, diffraction and interference are reconsidered within a particle-based concept of light in which light consists of structured photonic particles possessing finite properties of mass in photonic mass unit, momentum and non-electric charge [1] [2]. In this framework, the surrounding space is not treated as an empty void but as a structured medium capable of interacting with moving photonic particles. The interaction between photons, boundaries, and the structured space medium can naturally lead to organized spatial patterns that resemble the fringe structures commonly attributed to wave interference.

The purpose of this work is therefore not merely to reinterpret classical optical phenomena but to explore whether diffraction and interference may arise from deterministic particle–medium interactions rather than the hypothetical wave superposition. Such an approach aims to restore a cause–effect description consistent with physical intuition while opening a possible pathway toward a more unified understanding of light and space.

Discussion

The reflection, refraction, diffraction, interference and polarization of light are surface related phenomena, hence understanding the surface (interface) of two media is of vital importance in addition to proper understanding of light particles and the medium in respect of their physical structure and properties such as the charge state for a clear conceptual understanding of the phenomena of light. In the new concept, particles of all domains have a centrally organized structure having a nucleus and extra nuclear space structure containing orbital particles at discrete distances. The extra nuclear space structure in any domain has a space density graded structure and contains space matter particles in equilibrium with the space structure due to mass-space attraction. The spatial density of space matter particles is directly proportional to the number density of space matter particles which can be visualized from the structure of the atmosphere of the earth. Beside the local neutrality of space structure, there exists a charge field structure within the extra nuclear space structure which is caused by the charge distribution within the core and crust of the particle. Due to different range and strength of charge interaction among charge particles of different domains, different nature of charges (electric and non-electric) interplay in different nature of field-particle interactions. The inter atomic space medium contains space matter particles of micro-micro domain (light particles) in neutral state as well as charge state similar to the existence of neutral atoms, ions and free electrons in the interplanetary space. The interface structure is primarily composed of a space medium containing micro-micro domain space matter particles (light particles) and there exists a charge polarised structure due to stiff photonic potential gradient between the interfacing mediums which causes different phenomena of light due to field-particle interaction.

Interference

An atomic particle would be found as a massless and structureless point particle in macro domain scale; however, the same atomic particle has nucleus and extra nucleus space structure with electron configuration in micro domain scale. Recently this author has explored the reality of light particles in micro-micro domain scale and suggested the existence of mass in photonic mass unit, non-electric charge in photonic charge unit and structure in photonic dimension scale [3]. In this new concept light particle is also a particle of matter of micro-micro domain which is one domain below the atomic domain. The physical existence of light particles in space medium gives a new connotation of the space/vacuum medium as photonic gas. The particle-particle interaction, field-particle interaction and field-field interaction have unified significance in micro domain and micro-micro domain. A charge particle ‘A’ of one domain forms a charge field in its surrounding medium and the charge field is formed by space matter particles of finer domains having gradient of state properties. Likewise, a second charge particle ‘B’ forms its charge field in the medium by the finer domain particles. If particle ‘B’ comes closer to ‘A’ then the field of ‘B’ superimposes on the field of ‘A’ where the structure of the field within the zone of intersection is reorganized by rearrangement of active space matter particles of finer domain. The interaction causing reorganization of stricture in the zone of intersection can be described in different ways as particle-particle interaction, field-particle interaction and field-field interaction. Thus, the significance of field-field interaction is otherwise the collective interaction of space matter particles in finer domains belonging to different fields. Hence, it is not required to presume that a field is a fundamental entity of nature since field interaction is otherwise the collective interaction of particles in finer domain.

The very existence of micro-micro particles (light particles) in different active states (non-electric charge state) has their placement in macro structure, micro structure of matter and the structure of space medium/vacuum medium. Thus, an active light particle carrying photonic charge when transits through a space medium, some of the active space matter particles in its closer proximity interacts with the transiting light particle. By this interaction the transiting light particle would respond to interaction with space matter particles of the medium (field) thereby undergoing acceleration, deceleration and change of direction. The space matter particle forming field also undergoes dynamic fluctuation due to the transit of the light particle. Another light particle passing close to the fluctuating field particles, responds to the fluctuation which causes interference of light. Spreading of light beams is caused due to interference.

Diffraction

The role of interface structure in reflection, refraction and grazing of light has been discussed elsewhere [4] [5]. The diffraction phenomenon of light is caused due to field-particle interaction within the photonic charge polarised structure of the interface. Light passing close to sharp edges moves through the interface structure where bending of light (diffraction) occurs. Positively charged light particles are accelerated in the photonic charge field with decreasing photonic space potential and decelerated in the increasing space potential. Light particles moving along the field direction (normal to the surface /interface) experience strong field-particle interaction and the particles undergo acceleration and deceleration depending on decreasing or increasing space potential of the field (Fig. 1).

Light particles moving parallel to the surface/interface essentially moves along equipotential planes between positive and negative potential maxima where the light particle is gradually pulled towards the negative potential maxima as shown in (Fig-2). When it reaches the negative potential maximum, it finds the field is zero but the particle continues to move against the opposing field due to inertia of motion. Subsequently, the velocity component normal to the interface becomes zero. The light particle makes up and down motion a few times before it stabilizes its position in the negative potential maximum plane (Fig.2). All light particles between two potential maxima are dragged to the negative potential maximum.

In the new concept the extra nuclear space structure of an atom is formed due to mass-space attraction. The space density of extra nuclear structure decreases outwardly due to the inverse square law of mass-space attraction. Thus, the size of the atom is a function of background space density which in turn is a function of the number density of space matter particles. Within the extra nuclear structure, a number density of space matter particles goes on increasing towards the nucleus. Thus, the size of the extra nuclear space structure of space matter particles decreases towards the nucleus. Hence, the space holding per unit of mass of a space matter particle goes on decreasing towards the atomic nucleus. In the new concept charge (electric and non-electric) is a state property of matter (mass-space integral system) characterised through the mass-space in matter relative to the mass-space ratio of matter in its background. In a given background if all matter has the same mass-space ratio (same space holding per unit of matter) then they are neutral to one another and each matter or their assembly can be considered to have zero charge potential in a relative scale. Any one space matter particle or their cluster is a neutral matter carrying zero charge in the relative charge concept. Another space matter particle with a different space holding per unit of mass entering to the neutral environment is characterised to carry charge with reference to the zero-background potential. Conventionally a mass rich particle (less space holding per unit of mass) carry positive charge and a space rich particle (more space holding per unit of mass) carry negative charge. Following the absolute scale of charge, all particles in all states and in all domains have an absolute value of charge due to its mass space ratio where the pure space without mass relates to zero absolute charge potential and the potential goes on increasing with the increase of matter content per unit of space content. Thus, the inter atomic space in solid contains mass rich space matter particles and that of space medium contains space rich space rich space matter particles. Hence, the inter atomic space potential (photonic charge potential) of solid and liquid is much higher than that of gas or space medium. Hence, the interface zone facing solid at one end and space medium at other end has a high order of potential difference. The interface is composed of mostly micro-micro domain particles (light particles) and for a di-photonic interface structure, polarization features are inevitable. One can visualize from the natural polarised electric structure of the atmosphere of the earth starting from the surface.

Bending of light near sharp edges

The equipotential planes of the interface are parallel to the surface. A sharp edge in the form of a line is formed when two surfaces meet. But the equipotential planes of the interface don’t form such a sharp line as it takes a smooth curve at location of corners and the radius of curvature increases outwardly as shown in Fig.3. There exists a photonic charge potential gradient within the interface with high potential corresponding to charge state of photons within the inter atomic space of solid and the low potential corresponding to the charge state of photons in the space medium adjacent to the interface. The potential gradient is stronger near the solid surface and weaker towards the space medium. The degree of photonic charge polarization of the interface medium is high at the near end of the solid surface and reduces to zero at the far end from the solid surface. In order to express the polarised potential within the interface, a relative potential scale is used with a dynamic reference zero line as shown in Fig.3. With reference to the relative photonic charge potential scale the positive and negative maxima planes of the interface are shown in red and green lines respectively.

Incident light particles passing close to the corner of a solid, though have clear access without intervention with the solid structure but are intercepted by the photonic field structure of the interface. During the transit of light particles close to the corner, the light particle is accelerated and decelerated as it crosses the decreasing potential and increasing potential zones of the polarised field respectively. Thus, the gross field effect of the interface on the light particle changes the rectilinear trajectory causing bending of light at corners (Fig.3).

Diffraction of light passing through single slit

A slit is a thin rectangular opening in macro domain scale which has large dimension in micro-micro domain scale having photonic charge polarised structure at the edges of the slit as shown in Fig.4. The slit across the narrow opening has three important zones. The two zones correspond to the interface structures of two sharp edges of the opaque metallic plate providing the slit. The third zone corresponds to the middle portion of the slit beyond the interface structure. Light passing through the third zone is not affected by the photonic field of the interface while the light passing through the interface zones of opposite edges undergo acceleration and deceleration by field-particle interaction in the decreasing potential and increasing potential of the photonic polarised field fields. Light particles passing through different zones of the slit exhibit different distinct phenomena where the light particle passing through the middle zone (third zone) reaches the screen unaffected and the light particle passing through the first and second zone are diffracted. This forms images on screen having a bright central zone with fringes on both sides (Fig.4).

Diffraction of light passing through double slit

There is nothing special in double slit experiment other than the considerations made in single slit. In case of a double slit the fringes produced by the two slits overlap in the central zone which magnifies the intensity of fringe at the center. The mismatch of fringes produced by two slits are reorganized to a single fringe pattern by the surface charge-field effect of the screen. The increase of brightness at the center of the image produced by double slit is shown in Fig.5.

Conclusion

The unrealistic wave theory of light was accepted as a reality of nature when it explained the diffraction of light which the realistic particle concept failed to explain. Both particle and wave concepts of light became indispensable. This made scientists believe that duality is a reality of nature. But nature is always consistent with its norm. The author attempted to remove the unnatural wave concept of light since the very light wave without a medium is not feasible and he has successfully explained many phenomena of light using the particle concept. Here again, in this paper, the author has explained the diffraction phenomena of light through the realistic particle concept. The new understanding of different phenomena of light has a bright scope to remove erroneous concepts of dual nature of light and establish consistency of nature in all its fronts.

Reference

https://philosophyofnature.org.in/towards-a-new-comprehensive-universal-science.
https://philosophyofnature.org.in/new-concept-of-electric-charge-in-matter.
https://philosophyofnature.org.in/different-domains-of-nature.
https://philosophyofnature.org.in/micro-micro-structure-of-interfaces-and-photonic-charge-field-a-reality-based-classical-explanation-of-reflection-and-refraction-of-light.
Grazing of light, Article-1, Issue-2, Volume-4, Towards Unifications of Sciences.

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Grazing of light

Bishnu Charanarbinda Mohanty — Sat, 02 May 2026 03:41:27 +0000

Abstract

The phenomenon of grazing incidence of light is conventionally explained within the framework of electromagnetic wave theory, where boundary conditions naturally lead to wave alignment along an interface at shallow angles. However, the wave description raises fundamental concerns regarding the propagation of light in the absence of a tangible medium, as wave phenomena typically require a medium possessing suitable elastic properties. In contrast, the particle concept of light offers a more physically intuitive basis, as particles can propagate through a medium without dependence on its elastic characteristics.

The dominance of wave theory, largely due to its success in explaining certain optical phenomena, has led to the acceptance of wave–particle duality as an intrinsic quality of nature. This work challenges the duality standpoint by emphasizing the particle model, particularly when it has a satisfying explanation for rectilinear propagation, reflection, refraction and the photoelectric effect. Building upon earlier studies, the author introduces an enhanced particle framework incorporating finite mass, non-electric charge (photonic charge) and a structured mass–space interaction (field-particle interaction) within the interface medium. Within this perspective, the present paper develops a unified physical mechanism to explain the grazing behaviour of light. The proposed model aims to provide a coherent, causally grounded alternative to wave-based interpretations, with the potential to account for a broader range of optical phenomena without involving duality.

Keywords: Grazing incidence of light, Particle model of light, Photonic charge, Interface polarization, Field–particle interaction, Micro-micro domain dynamics.

Introduction

Light exhibits different phenomena (rectilinear propagation, reflection, refraction, grazing, diffraction, interference, polarization, photoelectric effect, constant velocity in a medium etc.). This author fails to accept the feasibility of propagation of light waves in vacuum medium without having the required wave propagating properties and provides alternative justification in support of the particle concept of light [1]. The author has further argued on the existence of a tiny mass of photon in the photonic mass unit (micro-micro domain mass unit) the magnitude of which is zero in atomic mass unit [2]. Further, the light particles carry non-electric charge which has interaction in micro-micro domain range [3]. Thus, in the new concept, light as a particle of matter having mass, charge and internal structure in micro-micro domain scale has scope in exploring justification for different phenomena of light. The physical existence of light as a particle of matter introduces new physical perception of vacuum/space. The additional features of light particle and medium have scope to overcome the limitations of the corpuscular theory in explaining different phenomena of light. The dynamics of reflection and refraction has been explained from the above concept of light [4]. The new concept of light being closer to reality, has a bright scope of explaining diffraction, interference and polarization phenomena of light. The structure of light particles also has similarity with the structures of the atomic particle, solar system and galactic system in having nucleus and extra nucleus space structure due to mass-space interaction [5]. The new structural concept of light particles and the medium provide justification for the different constant velocities of light in different mediums including the maximum velocity in vacuum/space medium [6].

Discussion

The gaseous state of matter is conceptualised through the presence of atomic, molecular and sub-atomic particles in space medium. The perception of the existence of matter in finer domain (micro-micro domain) and their presence as space matter particles in space/vacuum medium gives rise to the revised understanding of space/vacuum as photonic gas. The organized pattern of micro-micro particles of matter in neutral and charge states go to form the structure of electric field in space medium hence we may not have to assume that field itself is a fundamental entity of nature. The new concept of light particle and the new concept of space medium enable classical physics to deal with different phenomena of light through conventional dynamics.

The grazing phenomenon is not confined to light particle (micro-micro particle) alone. In micro domain grazing of incident of electrons, ions and atoms on surfaces occurs at very shallow angles leading to surface channeling. In the macro domain, the grass cutter shot of football resembles the phenomenon of grazing where the ball undergoes skimming or just above the turf. Thus, the phenomenon of grazing is common to micro-micro particles (light particle), micro particles (electrons, ions and atoms) and macro bodies such as football. The best way to conceptualizeα the mechanism of grazing of light is to analyse the grazing of a football. The football hitting the ground at shallow angle (α) has two velocity components, 1) c sin , normal to the surface and 2) c cos , parallel to the surface. The normal component of velocity makes the football rebound. However, the rebound velocity is reduced due to loss of energy in partial inelastic impact and windage. On the other hand, the parallel component of velocity is gradually reduced by friction and windage. The drop in the vertical component of rebound velocity is conveniently accounted for by the coefficient of restitution. An elastic ball dropped from a height H never reaches its original position after rebound because the collision is not 100 percent elastic. The ball bounces on ground again and again, each time with a reduction of its rebound velocity and finally comes to rest. Similarly, the vertical component of the football hitting at shallow angle becomes zero after a few bouncing. The horizontal component experiences frictional resistance from ground during contact period. The frictional resistance acts tangentially on the contact surface of the ball whereas the inertial force acts at the center of mass of the ball thus producing a turning moment to roll the ball. A part of the linear kinetic energy of the ball is converted to rotational kinetic energy due to mass moment of inertia. Thus, due to the lack of 100% elastic collision, the bouncing of football on ground gradually reduces its amplitude and finally approaches zero. Thereafter, the ball only rolls and finally comes to rest due to rolling friction and windage. But light particle maintains a constant speed in a uniform medium due to a different mechanism discussed elsewhere [6]. However, the velocity of light undergoes acceleration and deceleration in the highly polarised photonic charge field structure within the interface.

The surface of dense medium (solid/liquid) facing the less dense medium (gas/space medium) forms an interface between the mediums spreading over few atomic dimensions significantly towards the lighter medium [4]. The interface structure is primarily composed of micro-micro domain matter. The photonic charge potential difference across interfaces causes charge polarization within the di-photonic interface medium similar to electric charge polarization in a di-electric material. The polarized photonic charge-field originates from high inter atomic space potential of dense medium and gradually slows down within the interface which becomes remarkable in micro-micro domain scale. A positively charged light particle in its transit through interface undergoes acceleration and deceleration of its normal component (the component, perpendicular to the interface) due to increasing and decreasing photonic potential of the charge polarised field. A positively charged photon carrying photonic charge accelerates towards decreasing photonic space potential even when the charge-potential gradient is caused by charge polarization. However, the acceleration is modified (weakened) in a polarised field. Thus, the normal component of velocity of light particle carrying positive photonic charge is accelerated in the direction of decreasing photonic potential and is decelerated in the direction of increasing photonic potential within the photonic charge polarised interface medium. The photonic charge field (potential gradient) is zero at photonic charge potential maxima and minima. A light particle approaching a positive potential maximum overcomes the photonic charge field barrier by utilising its kinetic energy thereby its normal component of the velocity is gradually reduced. If the perpendicular component of kinetic energy, possessed by virtue of its velocity component normal to interface is enough to overcome the barrier of photonic potential maximum, then it would enter into the different photonic field with decreasing potential where the light particle would be accelerated up to the point of negative potential maximum. The photon particle once again finds a field with increasing potential where it loses its kinetic energy due to opposing field effects. If a light particle has enough energy, then it would as well cross over the second field barrier. Light at any angle of incidence could have obeyed the laws of reflection since the field conditions under acceleration and deceleration of the normal velocity component is identical for the incident path and the reflected path. But there is always loss of energy due to unevenness of the field within the interface. The magnitude of the vertical component of velocity of light particles approaching the interface at a shallow angle being very small, the directed kinetic energy normal to interface is also very small and the loss of energy in rebound becomes significant. In such a case the normal component of reflected light doesn’t have enough energy to overcome the field barrier in its reflected path which makes the light particle to undergo back and forth motion around the plane of negative maximum potential, each time reducing its amplitude. Finally, the light particle moves parallel to the interface along the equipotential plane along the negative maximum potential plane which results in the grazing effect of light.

The grazing mechanism of light is now described in relation to figure for easier understanding. Figure-1 shows the schematic view of the photonic potential structure within the interface between solid medium and space medium. The inter-atomic space potential (photonic charge potential) within the solid is much higher than the space potential of the space medium. The cross-section of interface medium shown in micro-micro scale identifies the equipotential planes at potential maxima and minima marked as planes A-A’, B-B’, C-C’, D-D’, E-E’, F-F’, G-G’ and H-H’. The planes B-B’, D-D’, F-F’ and H-H’ correspond to potential maxima and the planes A-A’, C-C’, E-E’ and G-G’ correspond to potential minima. A light particle carrying positive photonic charge approaching towards the solid surface (plane H-H’) finds the increasing space potential in its journey from A-A’ to B-B’, C-C’ to D-D’, E-E’ to F-F’ and G-G’ to H-H’ where the velocity drops gradually due to the conventional field particle interaction. And during the transit of the said light particle from B-B’ to C-C’, D-D’ to E-E’ and F-F’ to G-G’ the velocity gains due to field particle interaction in a decreasing space potential. On the other hand, any light particle coming through solid medium or reflected from H-H’ plane crosses the photonic polarised structure of the interface in its way to space medium. The photonic charge field with increasing potential for a photon’s transit from space medium to solid medium becomes a field with decreasing potential for the photon transiting from solid medium to space medium. Similarly, the photonic charge field with decreasing potential for a photon’s transit from space medium to solid medium becomes a field with increasing potential for the photon transiting from solid medium to space medium. The light particle travelling from space medium to solid medium or solid medium to space medium undergoes acceleration and deceleration in different layers of potential structure of the interface due to different nature of field particle interaction.

The light particle entering the interface at shallow angle passes through the polarised photonic potential structure of the interface where the normal velocity component stabilizes at one of the minimum potential planes depending on the energy level (charge state) of the light particle. The mechanism of the grazing of light at two different energy levels is described in Fig.2. The light particle with lower energy level and lower magnitude of velocity component normal to the interface and stabilizes at some outer negative potential minimum plane whereas that with higher energy level penetrates deeper and stabilizes at some inner negative potential maximum plane. The locus of two incident light particles (visible and UV light particles) at different energy levels are shown separately. The particle of visible light carrying positive photonic charge meets the outermost negative maximum potential plane of the interface at point ‘1’. The light particle travels from point-1 to point-2 in an increasing photonic space potential zone where the normal component of velocity is reduced by field particle interaction. The reduction of the normal component of velocity associates changes in magnitude and direction of resultant velocity and the same is shown schematically in the locus from point-1 to point-2. The light particle travelling from point-2 to point-3 experiences a gradual decrease of space potential where the normal velocity component of the light particle is increased thereby affecting the locus. Beyond the point-3 the light particle enters a field zone with increasing space potential and the normal velocity component of the light particle once again starts reducing and at point-4 becomes zero. Thereafter the light particle is accelerated in the reverse direction up to point-5 in the decreasing photonic space potential due to field particle interaction. At point-5, the field is zero but the particle continues to move beyond, against the field of increasing space potential and the velocity becomes zero at point-6. Thereafter the particle oscillates a few times across the negative maximum field potential with gradually decreasing amplitude and finally stabilizes its locus within the negative potential maximum. Hence, the locus of the light particle passes through points 1-2-3-4-5-6-7-8-9-10-11-12-13. In a similar manner the UV light also grazes by passing through 1’-2’-3’-4’-5’-6’-7’-8’-9’-10’-11’-12’-13’-14’.

Conclusion

Any realistic physical phenomenon is expected to have a realistic physical basis for understanding the phenomenon. Despite the mathematical merit of the wave theory of light, it lacks the very feasibility of the wave without a tangible medium. On the other hand, the particle concept of light though realistic but it lacks realization of mass and non-charge in finer domain, a domain below micro domain. The new perception of matter value and non-electric charge in light particles (particles of micro-micro domain) renders new scope for conventional dynamics in explaining different phenomena of light. The revised concept of the light particle and the new structure of medium have helped in understanding reflection, refraction and the constant velocity of light. This paper gives a clear picture, how the macroscopic concept successfully explains the grazing phenomena of light. If the particle concept of light is the only reality, then it can as well explain the remaining phenomena of light. If this is possible then we may not have to assume that duality is a reality of nature.

Reference

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Necessity Is the Mother of Invention: Invention Is the Unification of All Sciences

Dr. Archana Mukherjee — Sun, 25 Jan 2026 05:32:08 +0000

Abstract

If we dissect the title of paper, the four words are significant like ‘Mother’, ‘Invention’, ‘Necessity’ and ‘Unification of Sciences’. Among these, most important is ‘Mother’. Both biological and Nature ‘Mother’ are important for existence of all in this planet. Biological mother is just the miniature of ‘Mother Nature’. In fact, ‘Biological Mother’ introduces all of us with this wonderful ‘Cosmic World’. Now proceed to ‘Invention’ and ‘Necessity’ those are totally dependent on both the ‘Mothers’. We after being getting nourishment from ‘Mother Nature’ our human brain get stimulants to resurgence the required items already exist in ‘Mother Nature’. Those resurgent items get renamed as ‘Innovation’. The stimulated brain waves actually inspire the emission of regenerative thoughts as ‘Thoughtful Philosophy’ or the ‘Hypothesis’ of ‘Science’. Later those Hypotheses get established with logical sequences as ‘Science’. Therefore, philosophy is the root of all ‘Scientific- Social- Technological and Environmental events. The thought waves in the form of ‘Philosophical Science’ actually getting generated from ‘Conscious human brain’. The ‘Conscious human brain’ or ‘Science of Consciousness’ is the power house of “Resurgence and Regenerative Thought Waves”. If we think deeply ‘Science’ it is within ‘Conscience’. ‘Gyana’ is within ‘Vigyana’ and combinations of all these are getting transformed in ‘Wisdom’. One can attain such wisdom only when ‘human brain’ is in resting state with most powerful ‘Apparent Zero Entropy’. Rather, we can say our ‘Mother Nature’ gives us opportunity to explore more and more as per our need. Those get explored from ‘Mother Nature’ by tuning our brain at ‘Stable Consciousness’ under ‘Apparent Zero Entropy’. ‘Stable Consciousness’ under apparent zero entropy leads to ‘Unification of all Sciences’.

Keywords: Mother, Invention, Necessity, Unification of Sciences

Prelude To Invention, Wisdom, Life Force and Edible Energy
Prelude to Invention

The quote of the Greek philosopher- ‘Plato’ that ‘Necessity is the mother of Invention’ is the reality since inception of dwelling of human beings on this planet. In the primitive era- human beings had no shelter, formal food, health care and so on. In due course, food habits, shelter, health care had built up owing to necessity through progressive evolution. Yes, it is “necessity” which triggers our brain to think and those thought waves get translated in different forms of invention to meet our demands.

Further, necessity is called as ‘Mother of Invention”. We all know we are born and live under the care of our biological ‘Mother’ as well as under the congenial environment of our ‘Mother – Nature’. Biological mother holds support to respective individual lives but ‘Mother- Nature’ holds all lives, non-living matters and interconnects all in a cyclic process.

In human life, scientific education begins at childhood during each step of our growth. Parents teach us how to sit, stand, eat and walk step by step. It involves child care, food, nutrition and health care sciences the various sectors of physical, chemical and biological sciences. The foundation of scientific and moral education we first receive from our parents and elders. Parents are our inborn teachers for overall growth.

While quoting Greek Philosopher Plato’s thought we must recall our ancient Indian wisdom. In Indian wisdom, parents are considered living God to children. Father and Mother teach us bit by bit to stand on our own. We should pay our respect to our mother with this verse

“Janani Janmabhoomischa Swargadapi Gariyasi” – means Our biological mother is more glorified than our birth place and heaven. Similarly, we should bow down to father with the verse

“Pita Dharma: Pita Swarga: Pita Hi Param Tapah

Pitri Preetimapanne Priyante Sarvadevataah” – means Our biological father is our heaven, path finder and most lovable divine force.

Wisdom and Life Force

Our ‘Ancient Wisdom’ helps us to refine our characters with moral values of human beings and strengthen our intellects.

Our ancient wisdom taught us to be grateful to our ‘Mother Nature’ which provides us everything including ‘Life Air’ for our existence on this planet. Therefore, we should express our gratefulness to ‘Mother Earth’- the holding supports, “Sun God” – the lamp of the Universe and other divine forces with the verse or our ‘Gayatri Mantra’.

“Om Bhur Bhuvah Svah Tat Savitur Barenyam

Bhargo Devasya Dhimahi Dhiyo yo nah Prachodayat”

We in the modern era know the various fundamental laws and theories which seem to govern the physical nature around us. However, what all had been depicted in ancient time in our sacred books are the fundamental laws which can define various mysteries beyond the scientific explanations. There are several such slokas that exist as our ancient treasures of science rather ‘Super Science of Consciousness’ to understand the “Super Nature and Supreme Power (energy)” exist to govern the visible and also the invisible world in the Supreme Cosmic world. One such very powerful and applicable to the super nature is our sacred ‘Gayatri Mantra’.

This mantra reveals the interconnectedness of everything in this Universe. Such as the living entities, the life force – ‘The soul’, their knowledge, intellect, wisdom, consciousness and the surroundings they exist in “Triloka (permanent shelters)”. Let all get enlightened with divine sound, divine light energies which are always emitted from celestial divine forces and from the Supreme Divine Creator (The Solar being). We invoke all these celestial forces with ‘Gayatri Mantra’ which is allowing us to take breath and live lively.

Edible Energy

The food and nutrition are the basics of human or living world’s mobility. However the food, the calorie actually the edible energy comes from plant and animal kingdom. Plants are the efficient converter of solar energy into edible energy with the components of air and water. We all know how plant synthesizes carbohydrate. To synthesis carbohydrate in plant cells, chlorophylls absorb light energy from Sun then it is utilized to convert inorganic substances like CO2, H2O etc. subsequently into a complex carbohydrate. This provides us energy and makes us active to do various energy consuming works. Similarly, animals do depend on plants and other animals for edible energy. This simple example is just cited to understand that energy is always convertible, from one form to another. If we talk about thermodynamics (Callen 1985), then it will be understood better based on reality of the happenings around us in this physical world. However, the happenings beyond limited world are still remained unexplored as mystery.

The mystery of the universe’s laws is encapsulated in several fundamental principles. The second law of thermodynamics states that in any natural thermodynamic process, the total entropy of a system and its surroundings always increase. Entropy, a measure of disorder or randomness, indicates that energy transformations are not entirely efficient, and some energy is always lost as heat. This fundamental principle has far- reaching implications for our understanding of the universe.

Innovative Idea is the key to Invention, an Outline of Innovation Management matrix

Innovative ideas are the key to open up the box of invention. However, brain waves driven innovative ideas are found to be different in respect to their implications.

With regard to market needs, innovations can be classified into four categories (Satell 2012; Kalbach 2012) using Innovation Management Matrix (Fig. 1). This matrix identifies four types of innovations including basic research based on the problem they resolve with applicability.

Basic Innovations

These are pillars or base to offer viable solutions for the basic problems. They can propel towards other innovations depending on the magnitude of the problems, its address & impact in the market.

Breakthrough Innovation

Breakthrough innovation refers to immense technological advances that propel an existing product or service ahead of competitors (Kalbach 2012). The breakthrough technologies are results of research conducted in R & D organizations with clearly defined problems, but the outputs are significant enough for use in diverse application domains.

Disruptive Innovations

A disruptive innovation is an innovation which provides high through put consumer value of the existing product. Thereby creating a new market. In the process of providing high-quality consumer benefits, this innovation eventually disrupts the existing market and makes.

Sustaining Innovation

The sustaining innovations are technological advances which systematically improve the performance of current technologies along with dimensions of existing markets. In contrast to disruptive innovation, a sustaining innovation does not create new markets. Rather it evolves only existing ones with better value.

These four categories of innovations with practical implications of developed technologies in ‘Root and Tuber Crops’ have been well illustrated by Mukherjee et al 2024.

Coming back to broader aspects of “Innovation” is also the thought wave coming out of the human brain and spreading arena in the different spheres of science including the present era of “Microchip” or AI (Artificial Intelligence) the disruptive innovative technologies. Of course, AI has come out as a necessity today but we should always remember that the ‘Human brain’ is having “humanity feeling” whereas AI though will work like the human brain but it is devoid of human feelings.

In case of AI- “Necessity is the Mother of Invention” is quite confusing. ‘Mother’ is ‘soulful word’ very much integrated with ultra caring for all. However, in the case of AI it will work more precisely than any human being but it will not have the human feelings and is far away from ‘motherly care’. When we talk about ‘Unification of Sciences’. Yes, science is not an isolated field it is integrated with each and every section of human life and its surroundings like ‘Soil Earth to Space’. Some aspects are apparently visible to us, some are not. Therefore, ‘Science’ too is nothing but infinitesimal action, reactions of the super active celestial entities. Those happenings are integrated, disintegrated and again reforming with various virtual forms from a core of unified ‘Gyana- Vigyana’. Science, ‘Vigyana- Gyana’ has been well explained in various scriptures. Among those, the knowledge in ‘Bhagavad Gita’ is unique. While Arjuna was confused to perform his Karma, Lord tried to make Arjuna understand ‘Karma’ and ‘Dharma’. Dharma is the path to perform the Karma. Arjuna needs to get rid of confusion regarding ‘Karma – Dharma’ in the battle field of ‘Kurukshetra’. The verse on Gyana-Vigyana is not only for Arjuna. It is for all human beings to perform their duties rather ‘Karma- Dharma’ in righteous path. Let us try to understand the verse of ‘Gita’ in simplest way.

(Bhagavad Gita,Verse 6.8; Prabhupada and Bhaktivedanta Swami 2008)

“Gyāna-Vigyāna-tṛptātmā kūṭastho vijitendriyaḥ

yukta ity ucyate yogī sama-loṣṭāśma-kāñcanaḥ”

Translation:
“The yogī, who is fully content in knowledge (Gyāna) and wisdom (Vigyāna), who is unshaken (kūṭastha), who has conquered the senses (vijitendriyaḥ), is said to be truly united (yukta). Such a yogī views a lump of clay, a stone, and gold as equal.”

Śrī Krishna describes the highest state of self-realization, where the yogī attains complete contentment through both knowledge (Gyāna) and direct experiential wisdom (Vigyāna). The distinction between these two aspects is crucial in understanding the depth of this teaching. Gyāna refers to intellectual understanding, which can be acquired through study, reasoning, and contemplation. However, mere intellectual grasp of spiritual concepts does not bring transformation unless it is internalized through direct experience.

This ‘deeper realization’ is what has been termed as Vigyāna, which signifies knowledge that has been integrated into one’s being through direct perception. In scientific terms, this differentiation is akin to explicit versus implicit learning. Explicit learning involves acquiring information consciously, while implicit learning occurs through experience and subconscious processing. A yogī who has attained Vigyāna does not merely understand spiritual truths in theory but perceives them as self-evident realities, shaping his thoughts, actions, and state of being.

In fact, if we go into depth of this verse we will be able to understand the interconnectedness, the integrated happenings and their rectification is going on in a cyclic way. In our illusory world “Space to Earth” are interconnected and the whole Cosmos is monitoring every such happenings in illusory world (Apara Prakriti) or inferior nature and the happenings in invisible world (Para Prakriti) or superior nature.

Gyana-Vigyana of Gita awakens ‘Human Consciousness’ the root of all inventions including ‘microchip’ or artificial brain ‘components’ to ignite ‘human intellect’ for ‘Welfare’ of Human beings and its environment.

Awakened ‘Human consciousness’ strengthens our intellects and guides us in righteous path to do good to others (Mukherjee 2023). If we think deeply, it is our ‘Human Consciousness’, the power store house of ‘Gyana – Vigyana’. It triggers to work only when awakened. Hence, what all inventions are happening actually originating from awakened ‘Human Consciousness’ or ‘Intellects’- The unified power house of ‘Gyana – Vigyana’. After our birth, intellects get nourished from our parental care and grow slowly with maturity. The focused, matured knowledge enriches us with ‘Wisdom’. ‘Wisdom full’ action guides us in the right path for ‘Karma- Dharma’- The ultimate continuum of human life governed by ‘Cosmos Veda’.

Gyana-Vigyana can be understood more lucidly by in depth knowledge of ‘Energy and Consciousness’.

All Forms of Energy Including Edible Energy, Laws of Thermodynamics & Consciousness

While we explain the laws of thermodynamics, we realized that all forms of energy are changing with loss of some energy as heat. Such changes are observed to be obvious owing to randomness behaviour of energy. In fact, randomness can be explained as ‘Unrest’. For every particle, everything needs to attain a resting position from unrest condition. Probably the third law of thermodynamics is observed to reflect that situation of energetic continuation from the unrest stage to ‘resting stage’ as ‘Zero energy’ or Entropy zero. If so, then what happens to the energies getting lost during the process from ‘unrest’ to ‘rest’. As per ‘Law of conservation of energy’ – the lost energy also will recycle and continue to come to an apparent end but not an “Absolute end”.

Edible energy also acts randomly like any other form of energy and its randomness manifests in different forms of human activities. Further, living beings require balanced food and nutrition to maintain good health. In fact, balanced food and nutrition provide stabilize energies and such energies recharge all the active parts of living bodies to be active in harmony. Such harmony only results in a healthy body. If there is imbalance in edible energy in any living being then there is randomness, anomaly and manifest as deficiencies, diseases etc. Therefore, the concept of a balanced “Diet” has been enumerated. Further, any advancement of food, nutrition and medical sciences have enriched the concept of required “Edible energy” and its perfect sources to maintain stable or good health.

If we talk about “Zero Entropy and Beyond” as well as “Balanced Edible Energy” then we should not forget to discuss about the phase of “Consciousness”. Phase of consciousness can be explained through a hypothesis of mathematical explanation like C (PSI) of X (Bharadwaj et al 2025a; Bharadwaj et al 2025b). However, it is better to explain it with simplicity. Phase of “Consciousness” is nothing but the most important for human beings as they have super intellect. Such intellect comes from our “Central Nervous System”. Which allows us to think unlike other living beings. Our thought process only can allow us to attain “Super Intellect” and most importantly it illuminates our thought process further into “Consciousness”.

The stage of consciousness is alike to ‘Zero Entropy’. Which indicates our mind fully settled and stabilized with our body? Which otherwise is also the victim of randomness. When one reaches the phase of “Consciousness”, the external happenings cannot affect him. He totally comes out of randomness and reaches a stage of “Apparent Zero” but not “Absolute Zero”. During such phases the mind and body get totally stabilized. However, to attain this stage, we do need energy, probably that energy comes from powerful sources through intersections of different special energies may be from the unexplored path of “Zero Entropy and Beyond”.

Conclusion

All forms of energy including edible energy for food and nutrition follow the behaviour of randomness till it comes to a resting stage. All these can be well explained if we take any system around us. From complex substance to a simple one, from a macro body to a micro one, if we analyse those till their subatomic stage and beyond then things will be clear. The conversion of energy is a continuous process. If we try to understand the laws of thermodynamics and the law of conservation of energy then there must be energy beyond ‘Zero Entropy’. Those unexplored paths of energy beyond zero Kelvin can be explained with the path of Consciousness. The path of consciousness does require energy from a powerful source which may be coming from the path of “Beyond zero Entropy”– The Reality of Real —A big question?? ?

Hence, if we dissect the whole process of ‘Celestial Cycle’ of ‘Cosmos’ – ‘Life’. – Wisdom, the whole continuum of ‘Cosmic Universe’ – Position of parents and mother earth found to be performing greater functions on integration of life, environment, scientific, non-scientific happening around us. Thus, we should pay our homage to ‘Mother Earth’, all divine forces and divinely parents every day, not as mere fashion as Environment Day, Mother’s Day, Father’s Day and so on in particular days.

The cosmic universe, Mother Nature, divine forces and parents are the root of all creations rather ‘Unified sources of all Innovations’. Which we can simply signify that those Cosmic Universe, Divine Mother Nature and Parents are the components of the ‘Unified Path’ of all sciences including modern ‘Microchip’ or ‘artificial brain technology’ applicable in every field of ‘Science’, Environment and Technology.

Necessity is the mother of Invention. However, most of the innovation comes out from ‘Science of Consciousness’. It is a reality that ‘Science of Consciousness’ stimulates our brains and generates thought waves. Those waves get translated in various forms of ‘invention’. Such occurs when ‘Human Brain’ reaches a stage of “Apparent Zero” but not “Absolute Zero”. During such phases the mind and body get totally stabilized. However, to attain this stage, we do need energy, probably that energy comes from powerful sources through intersections of different special energies may be from the unexplored path of “Zero Entropy and Beyond”. Wherein all forms of energies are unified and ‘human brain’ works with deepest consciousness to explore its surroundings and its own existence, interconnections with all in this “Cosmos”.

Acknowledgement

This communication is dedicated to all the ‘Celestial Energy Sources’ including. ‘Mother Earth’, the entire ‘Parents’ – the infinitesimal parts of Cosmic Circuit. Their driving forces which are leading all the beings towards ‘Unified Vision of Sciences’ in this World.

References

Bharadwaj, P., & Bharadwaj, D., & Mukherjee, A. (2025a). A Reality That Begins from Zero: The Play of the Union Between Consciousness and Nature. Institute of Philosophy of Nature, 2(3), 198–209.
Bharadwaj, P., Bharadwaj, D., & Mukherjee, A. (2025b). The Unified Vision of “Nothing” and “Science of Consciousness”. Open Journal of Philosophy, 15, 479–492. https://doi.org/10.4236/ojpp.2025.152028.
Callen, Herbert B.1985. Thermodynamics and an Introduction to Thermo statistics. 2nd ed. New York: Wiley.
Kalbach, J. (2012) Clarifying Innovation: Four Zones of Innovation. Available at: https://experiencinginformation.wordpress.com/2012/06/03/clarifying-innovation-four-zones-of-innovation
Mukherjee, A., Sreekumar, J., Sheela, M. N., Immanuel, S., Sahoo, M.R., and Hegde, V., (2024c.) Enhancing Adaptability, Nutritional Quality in Tropical Tuber Crops: Source for Adaptive Food and Nutrition, Food and Nutrition Sciences, 2024, 15, 1141-1169) DOI: 10.4236/fns.2024.1511074 Nov. 29, 2024
Mukherjee, Archana. 2023. Tribute to Goodness in Service Sectors and to Supreme Power:Experience Sharing. Journal of Environmental and Sociobiology 20(2):181-184.ISSN0973 -0834.
Prabhupada, A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami. 2008. Bhagavad Gita As It Is: With the Original Sanskrit Text, Roman Transliteration, English Equivalents, Translation and Elaborate Purports. Alachua, FL:The Bhakti Vedanta Book Trust.
Satell, G. (2012) Before You Innovate, Ask the Right Questions. Harvard Business Review. Available at: https://hbr.org/2013/02/before-you-innovate-ask-the-ri.

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Unified Field Theory: Chinese Vision Through Yin-Yang Philosophy

Raja Kishore Paramguru — Sun, 25 Jan 2026 05:25:05 +0000

Abstract

This paper presents a brief review of the universal archetypal opposites yin and yang, the ancient Chinese philosophy, in relation to unified field theory. The researchers have given detailed account of the origin, history, application, and practice of the yin-yang philosophy in Chinese tradition. Its application and worthiness in unified field theory have been examined through yangton and yington hypothetical theory, use of yin-yang philosophy as virtual and physical duality, as bipolar dynamic logic, as complex mechanics etc. It remained to be examined by the theoretical physicists.

Key Words: Unified Field Theory, Chinese Vision, Yin-Yang Philosophy, Virtumanity, Dialectical nature, Virtual and physical duality, Yangton and yington hypothetical theory, Complex-valued mechanics, Bipolar dynamic logic.

Introduction

This paper starts from where the last paper [Paramguru 2025] ended. The particular portion may be cited here – “As regards the incompatibility between GR and QM is concerned, Beichler provides an interesting observation; he writes – ‘Relativity is first and foremost about form (structure) and the quantum is primarily all about function, which come together as one of the most fundamental dualities (known as non-commuting quantities in physics) in nature, but there is always a bit of each in other. However, these two ideas, form and function, are not necessarily incompatible since there is always a little of one in the other at a higher level of understanding’ [95]. Here, most interestingly, the author puts a picture of the ancient Chinese symbol called ‘T‘ai-chi T’u’, or ‘Diagram of the Supreme Ultimate’, meaning – GR and QM can combine the same way as ‘yin and yang’, the universal archetypal opposite poles of nature combine” [232]. Thus, the subject matter of this paper is combining the dualities of form and function utilizing the universal archetypal opposites of yin and yang, the ancient Chinese philosophy.

Incidentally, significant amount of literature on this subject by a number of Chinese scholars are available. A resourceful software engineer cum entrepreneur Wei Xu has successfully combined philosophy of nature, universal field theory (UFT), natural cosmology and ontological evolution by using yin-yang philosophy to understand the virtual and physical dualities which exist in nature. Many of his publications are through his own theoretical framework Virtumanity Inc which means sciences in dialectical nature of virtual and physical duality [Xu 2016, Xu 2017, Xu 2019a, Xu 2019b]. Another scholar Edward Tao Hung Wu (1952-), born in Taiwan, graduate from Tsing Hua University, PhD from UCLA, living in California, USA; besides his software and piezoelectric entrepreneurship interests, during last years, has developed yangton and yington hypothetical theory [Wu 2015a, Wu 2015b, Wu 2016a, Wu 2016b, Wu 2018, Wu 2024]. While, Wen-Ren Zhang, a PhD in electrical and computer engineering and a Professor teaching quantum computing has published on bipolar features of yin-yang philosophy [Zhang 2009, Zhang 2012]; Ciann-Dong Yang, a Distinguished Professor in the Department of Aeronautics and Astronautics at National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan, and a specialist in complex mechanics and quantum mechanics has thrown significant light on realization and verification of yin-yang theory [Yang 2010].

Literature on this subject continues to pour in. Luo Shan, working as a pharmacist in a staff hospital in China, keeps interest in the traditional Chinese yin and yang theory and its application to scientific understanding of matter and systems [Shan 2019]. Qiu-zi Cong, Xiang Yu and De-yang Yu, all of them Professors in China, have integrated theory of physical particles and yi field [Cong etal 2021]. Wutong T. Song and Hongxin Cao, Chinese researchers in the area of Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) with specific interest in concepts of yin-yang, consciousness, and psychosomatic health have published their work on reality and application of yin and yang [Song and Cao 2022]. Based on this treasury of literature, this paper aims at giving a brief account of this Chinese vision of yin-yang philosophy in relation to UFT.

What is Yin-Yang philosophy

The book, The Tao of Physics, written by the Austrian born American physicist Fritjof Capra [1975] has already been discussed by the present author in the pages of this journal. The origin of yin-yang philosophy is Taoism, in the words of Capra – ‘The Tao is the cosmic process in which all things are involved; the world is seen as a continuous flow and change’ [104]. He goes on further – ‘The principal characteristic of the Tao is the cyclic nature of its ceaseless motion and change’ [105]. Here comes the polar opposite yin and yang which give a definite structure and meaning to the cyclic patterns of the motion of the Tao, the nature. The Chinese believe that all manifestations of the Tao are the results of the dynamic interplay of yin and yang. This symbolism of the archetypal pair yin and yang is pretty old, might have been derived more than two thousand years ago, and afterwards generations of people built it up through their thought process into a fundamental Chinese concept. These two archetypal poles of nature represent not only bright and darkness, but also male and female, firm and yielding, above and below, and many more. Yang is believed to be the strong, male, creative power associated with heaven; whereas, yin is taken as the dark, receptive, female representing the earth. In this symbol of yin and yang, the former is always denoted by black and the later by white; however, it is believed that there is always some black within the white and vice-versa. The Chinese people also believe that all things have yin and yang, which are universal and opposites, yet they complement and supplement each other with interdependence forming unity and harmony. In the course of this article, as will be seen, various authors will bring out various other essential characteristics of yin-yang.

The Yangton and Yington Hypothesis

As indicated above, this hypothesis has been built by the entrepreneur-thinker Edward Tao Hung Wu. The basis of this hypothetical theory is a circulating pair named as ‘Yangton and Yington’ with an inter-attractive force termed as ‘Force of Creation’. When this pair, made up of some-sort-of superfine magic-like particles, moves in space is termed as ‘Photon’; and when it sits in still is called as ‘Wu’s Particles’ or ‘Still Photon’. This particle named according to the name of the author is apparently imagined as the real ‘Photon’, and the circulating pair is given the apparent impression of yin-yang, though the author has never spelt out in this manner anywhere in his publications. He starts with the paper “Yangton and Yington – A Hypothetical Theory of Everything” [Wu 2015a] where, after defining the basic terms, he spells out that this pair can be spontaneously created at anywhere and anytime in the universe, and he proposes this to be the mode of creation of our universe. Then, he goes on explaining skillfully – how his proposition worked during the creation of our universe according to the Big Bang theory; how the free photon travelling at the speed of light combines Particle Physics and Quantum Mechanics explaining all the properties of light; how the Still Photon becomes the building block of all matters and the Force of Creation becomes the base for four forces. Finally, he explains Einstein’s relativity equation and existence of dark matter according to his hypothetical Yangton and Yington theory.

In his subsequent papers he has expanded his hypothetical vision of Yangton and Yington theory to explain subatomic particle structures in relation to the unified field theory [Wu 2015b]; to interpret gravitational waves, Newton’s Law and Coulomb’s Law by particle radiation and interaction theory [Wu 2016a]; to define the meanings and inter-relations between mass, momentum, force and energy of photons and subatomic particles [Wu 2016b]; and finally brings out his book My Universe: A Theory of Yangton and Yington Pairs [Wu 2018], with a summary [Wu 2024]. Between 2015 and 2024, a total of 71 papers and a book have been published by the author highlighting all details about his hypothetical theory [Wu 2024]. In the words of the author himself, his theory is: ‘As a result, Wu’s Pairs is an excellent model in study of the universe. Even without direct proves of the existence by physical experiments, Wu’s Pairs and Yangton and Yington Theory can be considered as the foundations of a binary universe. Just like the binary system to the decimal system in mathematics, many theories and principles developed in the binary universe can be used effectively in the real universe’ [2024, 13].

The Yin-Yang Theory

Unlike the entrepreneur-thinker Edward Wu whose work formed the previous section, the present section discusses three publications, the first by a specialized pharmacist working in a Chinese hospital, the second by three Chinese Professors, and the third by Chinese researchers in the area of TCM, all with specific interest in concepts of yin-yang and straightaway talk about applications of yin-yang theory. The pharmacist, Luo Shan’s paper reads “The Law and Applications of the Theory of Yin and Yang” [Shan 2019]. Here, the author starts with the conventional nature of yin and yang which is according to him – ‘the substance that constitutes the phenomena of matter system’, where ‘the scientific connotation of “Yin and Yang” is that “Yang” is the macro-structure of the quality system of matter phenomena, and “Yin” is the energy flow potential field matching with “Yang”’ [27]. Then he goes on deducing the laws and elaborating their meaning and interpretation. He points out that, during matching of yin and yang, since the latter represents the matter formation with mass M, it is easy to observe and measure it, and because the former represents the energy flow, it is difficult to observe and measure it. Then he presents the matching methods and finally concludes that ‘To sum up, the law of Yin-Yang balance explains that the phenomena of the matter system are the projection of mass-energy interaction. The maintenance of phenomena must maintain the integration of the mass-energy state, and the change of phenomena is accompanied by the direction of state change, which can be judged by the change of state parameters’ [31].

The second publication is the book The Theory of Physical Particles and Yi Field [Cong et al 2021] also deals with similar philosophy. The authors also term this theory as Li-Yi field theory, or, simply Liyi; and here, they combine the traditional Yi concept and the five-element theory of Li Yin and Yang, which integrates, with it, the analytical results of Western natural science. The authors claim that it also forms the LiYi time-space concept, and particularly add that these four fundamental principles are based on the Li Yin-Yang/mass-energy-time-space four-image principle of nature. Further, the conservation of field momentum, the Li Yin-Yang principle of interaction, and complex energy conservation are also supplemented with it.

The third title reads “The Reality and Application of Yin and Yang” [Song and Cao 2022], where the authors illustrate the origin, history, and characteristic of Yin and Yang philosophy in Chinese tradition, then explain how it functions, and finally demonstrate their application. ‘Yin and Yang originated in Chinese civilization more than 2000 years ago. In the first stage, ancient philosophers discovered yin and yang and their laws of motion —. In the second stage, yin and yang and the laws of yin and yang movement are used to explore methods and techniques’ [25]. Then the authors show that ‘Yin and Yang reveal the nature and state of matter’ [25], they also reveal ‘the laws of physical motion’ and ‘transfer of energy conversion’ [26]. Then they have shown their practical applications in the field of agriculture, heat transfer in different aquifer media, solar thermoelectric conversion, Chinese traditional medicine, and discovery of binary numbers for use in computation etc. ‘In conclusion’, they mention that ‘yin-yang is a key to unlocking the treasures of traditional Chinese civilization, which can help to bring into play its original values, and continue to provide new insights and directions for the development of modern science and the advancement of humanities’ [23].

Virtumanity – Yin Yang Physics – UFT

Wei Xu, originally a theoretical physicist from China, then an electrical and computer engineer from the United States of America, working in America as a resourceful entrepreneur, simultaneously delivered comprehensive innovations in information technologies as well as scientific principles and philosophies in natural cosmology and UFT. We are interested in the later. It seems that he ‘received a set of the divine books in the old classic manuscripts: worlds in universe’, during the period 2009 – 2019, from where the ground-breaking philosophies of theoretical physics, starting from constitution of elementary particles to inception of ontology of nature emerged’ [Xu 2019b, ix]. Based on which he straightaway jumped to the statements – ‘The year 2015 bids farewell to an intellectual age defined by classical physics, from Newton’s mechanics of 1687, to General Relativity of 1915, to Quantum Theory of 1920s, and to mathematical physics of today.– The vagueness of mathematized physics has been gone awry and pushed to extreme for a forty-year search on a “Theory of Everything”, followed by another sixty-year period wasted on String or Superstring Theory, M-Theory, and other fairy-tale physics’ [Xu 2019a, x]. From here he moves on to the solution – ‘our ancestors discovered that duality orchestrated and harmonized their reality: sun-moon, warm-cold, materialization-consciousness, body-mind, male-female, thought-action, and more. — What promise hides in the dualities of physics: space-time, wave-particle, energy-mass, spin-charge, positive-negative, symmetry-asymmetry? — These dualities are balanced, interdependent, and inexorable. They are manifest in each particular action and movement, the outcome of a dialectical struggle for superiority. — It is essential to believe that the true framework of our universe is a topological hierarchy of virtual and physical duality, flourishing everywhere among the great streams of life, inspiration, and enlightenment. — Yinyang duality is rooted in the philosophy of seven millennia past, when our ancestors built a profound metaphysics. — Now is the time to realize the duality of metaphysics and physics, and to unite these disciplines in a greater whole’ [xi].

Then he created ‘Virtumanity Inc’, a platform to deal with the sciences in the dialectical nature of virtual and physical duality, where he put up all his thoughts as well as research work which he names ‘yin-yang physics’. The basis of yin-yang is ‘the supernatural principles in an environment of virtual space’, that the ‘Chinese tradition has developed the profound metaphysics and established scientifically the natural laws of Xing or YinYang duality: the reciprocal interaction of the opposite Matter and States is to cause all universal phenomena. — The Yin or Yang, or simply – and +, are the states of or the operation on an element or object, which form a coherent fabric of our nature, as exhibited in all physical existence.’ [Xu 2019b, 4]. From this basic principle, he proceeds with explaining the ‘duality of nature’; ‘energy and mass’, where he shows these two to be one duality of yin-yang nature of universe; ‘universal topology’; ‘quantum fields’; ‘symmetric and asymmetric fields’; ‘principles of ontology’; with generation of essential equations at each stage. His last conclusion is – ‘Finally, quantum ontology integrates general relativity, quantum curvature, gravitational fields seamlessly together’ [180].

The following two sections deal with specific scientific issues, one, bipolar dynamic logic; and the other, complex-valued mechanics, linked with yin-yang theory.

Yin-Yang Theory and Bipolar Dynamic Logic

Wen-Ran Zhang, a computer engineer, alone or along with his co-authors, published many papers using the bipolar dynamic logic to link Yin-Yang to various phenomena such as, quantum cellular automation, quantum computing, equilibrium-based bio-system simulation, bipolar fuzzy logic etc. Here, just two of his publications have been picked for a brief discussion, one, where he uses ‘bipolar Yin-Yang relativity’ as ‘a unifying theory of nature, agents, and life science’ [2009]; and the other, how a ‘Yin-Yang bipolar atom’ can lead ‘an eastern road toward quantum gravity’ [2012]. In these two publications, the author has cited some significant references of Yin-Yang philosophy being used by prominent people in the past such as: ‘the legendary German mathematician Leibniz invented binary numeral system in the 17th century and attributed his invention to YinYang trigrams’ and ‘now binary numeral system is a basis for all digital technologies’ and ‘according to the Daoist cosmology YinYang stands for “everything has two sides or two poles”’, in the former [2009, 382]; and ‘legendary Danish physicist Niels Bohr, a father figure of quantum mechanics, brought YinYang into quantum theory for his particle-wave complementarity principle’ in the later [2012, 1261]. Even, later, Bohr designed his own coat having the Yin-Yang logo with the Latin statement “contraria sunt complementa” which means “opposites are complementary” [1262]. The two publications are based on this particular philosophy.

In the former publication, the author has introduced ‘Yin Yang bipolar relativity and a real-world bipolar string theory as a unification of nature, agents, and life science.’ He has based his argument on the facts that, ‘bipolarity as an integral and inherent part of equilibrium is inseparable from equilibrium-based holistic truth’; that, action-reaction forces, particle-antiparticle pairs, negative-positive energies, input and output, or Yin and Yang in general are the most fundamental opposites of nature; and that, ‘the Yin-Yang bipolar sub-atomic particles discovered at the Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory show typical bipolar equilibrium/non-equilibrium properties’. Then, by introducing string theory and using ‘nine axioms and 16 conjectures for microscopic and macroscopic agent interaction, regulation, coordination, and exploratory scientific discovery in physical and social sciences’, he has proved that ‘bipolar relativity constitutes an equilibrium-based axiomatization of physics – a partial but most general solution Hilbert’s problem 6’ [2009,377]. In conclusion, he mentions that ‘the significance of this work lies in its equilibrium-based open-world open-ended unification of nature, life science, and socioeconomics as well as general relativity, electromagnetism, quantum mechanics, causality, and agent interaction’ [382].

In the later publication, the author starts with the facts that ‘Yin-Yang bipolar equilibrium-based approach to physics and science provides a fundamental super symmetrical alternative for scientific unification’ and ‘atom as a basic unit of matter should follow equilibrium or non-equilibrium conditions’ [2012, 1261]. Then he introduces a causal theory of Yin-Yang bipolar atom based on bipolar dynamic logic and bipolar quantum linear algebra which ‘provides a springboard to an equilibrium-based logical unification of particle and wave, matter and antimatter, relativity and quantum theory, strings and reality as well as big bang and black hole’ [1262]. Finally, the author brings out five postulates: (1) ‘Bipolar quantum entanglement is the most fundamental entanglement in quantum gravity’, (2) ‘YinYang bipolarity is the most fundamental property of the universe’, (3) ‘YinYang bipolar atom is a bipolar set of quantum entangled particle and antiparticle pairs’, (4) ‘Gravity is fundamentally large or small scale bipolar quantum entanglement’, and (5) ‘The speed of gravity is limited by the speed of quantum entanglement and not by that of light’ [1269]. The final lines of his conclusion read – ‘— the equilibrium-based approach to quantum gravity is fundamentally different from other approaches in philosophical basis. Since all beings must exist in a certain equilibrium or non-equilibrium, a scientific reincarnation of philosophy is predicted’ [1270].

Yin-Yang Theory and Complex Mechanics

One very important publication here is “A scientific realization and verification of Yin-Yang theory: complex-valued mechanics” [Yang 2010] by an author who is a super-specialist in the real scientific domain of complex and quantum mechanics. He starts with the fact that the philosophy of Tai Chi believes that the Tao, meaning nature, contains two parts, one is yang which is the observable (real) part, and the other is yin that is the unobservable (imaginary) part. Mathematically, it means that the nature is a complex-valued world and what we sense and measure is only the real physical world we experience in our daily life. The author compares it to be similar as the complex-valued mechanics, also known as quantum Hamilton mechanics with which he works in his laboratory, which is based on the same philosophy that the actual scenario of dynamic motion happens in complex space and the physical reality is merely its projection into the real space. Then he makes the statement – ‘Complex-valued mechanics (complex mechanics in short) is a rigorous physical realization of Yin-Yang theory, providing a unified approach to classical mechanics, quantum mechanics and relativistic mechanics under complex space.’ [136].

The author mentions that the symbol of Tai Chi is a combination of yin and yang, the former is marked with black and the later with white; although it is believed that always there is some white in the black and vice-versa. The author also believes that the Yin-Yang theory has remained an issue of pure-philosophy for a long time and this complex mechanics study of his is the first scientific realization of this theory through the mathematical language of complex variables and points out strong evidence of Yin-Yang duality in quantum mechanics. To prove his point, the author proceeds to first define a motion in complex space according to the Yin-Yang philosophy, then derives its equations of motion from the quantum Hamilton equations, and subsequently verifies ‘the Yin-Yang duality in quantum mechanics by showing how complex motions and their related real/imaginary interactions give rise to various quantum phenomena as observed from the real space’ [137]. All these quantum phenomena include tunnelling, spin, quantization, uncertainty principle, multiple paths and wave-particle duality, all originate from the Yin-Yang entanglement, i.e., the interaction between real and imaginary motions in complex space. Finally, he concludes – ‘— just as the interaction between Yin and Yang creates the universe, the interaction between real and imaginary motions produces all the observed quantum phenomena. The couplet shown in Fig. 11 highlights the role of the complex mechanics as a bridge between the Yin-Yang duality in Tai Chi and the wave-particle duality in quantum mechanics.’ [154].

Conclusion

In the introduction, the objective of this paper was fixed to combine the dualities of form and function utilizing the universal archetypal opposites of yin and yang, the ancient Chinese philosophy. To what extent this objective is fulfilled? Obviously, many of the studies presented above have used the yin-yang philosophy as a combination of virtual and physical dualities, whether in hypothesis, in reality, as bipolar dynamic logic, or, as complex-valued mechanics. One citation demands a place here – ‘Therefore, yin and yang are created to describe the properties of natural substances, and the movement of yin and yang is to illustrate the change patterns of the natural substances. Form and field are inseparable and can be transformed into each other under certain conditions. The properties of yin and yang are not absolutely fixed’ [Song and Cao 2022, 25]. At least form and field find special mention. How all these studies will influence the theoretical physicists remains to be seen.

References

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Capra, Fritjof. 1975. The Tao of Physics: An Exploration of the Parallels Between Modern Physics and Eastern Mysticism. Boulder: Shambhala.
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The post Unified Field Theory: Chinese Vision Through Yin-Yang Philosophy appeared first on Institute of Philosophy of Nature.

Drawbacks of Science in the Field of Astrophysics and Role of Quantum Computing

Kamala Kanta Jena — Sun, 25 Jan 2026 05:22:04 +0000

Abstract

Astrophysics is one of the greatest achievements of human thought, but it has several limitations. It depends mainly on indirect observations, distant cosmic events, and limited technology, which create uncertainty in our understanding. Many important ideas cannot yet be tested directly, making it hard to separate proven science from speculation. Astrophysical research is also expensive and requires large infrastructure, limiting access and progress. The immense size and complexity of the universe further challenge human ideas of certainty and meaning. These drawbacks show that astrophysical knowledge is temporary and incomplete, reminding us to remain humble about what science can truly explain. Quantum computing can overcome astrophysics’ limitations by enabling faster simulations, analyzing massive datasets, and modeling complex cosmic phenomena beyond classical computations.

Key Words: Astrophysics, Indirect observation, Technological limitations, Uncertainty, Theoretical models, Quantum computing, Cosmic scale.

Astrophysics is one of the most fascinating branches of science, dedicated to understanding the universe beyond Earth. It investigates the origin, structure, evolution, and ultimate fate of stars, galaxies, and other cosmic phenomena through advanced theories and modern technology. Standing at the frontier of human knowledge, astrophysics has revolutionized our understanding of black holes, cosmic evolution, and the large-scale structure of the universe using space telescopes, particle detectors, and powerful simulations. However, despite its remarkable achievements, the field faces significant limitations. It relies largely on indirect observations and complex models, and is constrained by high costs, technological dependence, and theoretical uncertainties. Examining these drawbacks helps clarify the boundaries of astrophysical knowledge and promotes a more balanced and realistic view of scientific progress [1, 2].

Indirect Observation

One of the major drawbacks of astrophysics is its heavy reliance on indirect observation. Unlike laboratory sciences, where experiments can be performed under controlled conditions, astrophysics does not allow direct experimentation on stars, galaxies, or black holes. These objects are located at vast distances and exist under extreme physical conditions that are impossible to recreate on Earth. As a result, astrophysicists must depend on information carried by electromagnetic signals such as visible light, radio waves, X-rays, gamma rays, and even gravitational waves emitted by distant cosmic sources. For instance, black holes cannot be observed directly because they emit no light; their existence is inferred from the motion of nearby stars or from intense X-rays produced by superheated matter spiraling into them. Such signals are often weak, altered by cosmic dust, or limited by the sensitivity of instruments. Consequently, astrophysical interpretations rely strongly on theoretical models and assumptions, which may be revised as new observations and technologies emerge [3, 4].

Inaccessibility of Astronomical Phenomena

One of the major limitations of astrophysics is that most astronomical phenomena are physically unreachable. Stars, galaxies, neutron stars, and black holes exist at enormous distances and under extreme conditions of temperature, density, and energy that humans cannot reproduce or directly explore. For example, a supernova explosion occurs millions of light-years away and releases more energy in seconds than the Sun will emit in its entire lifetime. Scientists cannot examine such an event directly; they can only study the light and particles that reach Earth long after the explosion. Similarly, the interior of a black hole cannot be observed because no information can escape beyond its event horizon. As a result, many astrophysical theories remain only partially tested, which include the explanation for dark matter, dark energy, or the conditions of the early universe. This inaccessibility leads to multiple competing models and ongoing scientific debate [2, 3, 5].

Infrastructure and Equipment Barrier

Astrophysics faces a major challenge due to technological constraints, as progress in the field depends heavily on advanced instruments and infrastructure. Discoveries rely on powerful telescopes, highly sensitive detectors, large data-processing systems, and complex space missions, all of which require significant time, expertise, and financial investment. Developing a single space observatory often takes several decades from initial planning to final deployment. For example, the James Webb Space Telescope required more than twenty years of development and billions of dollars before it began scientific operations. Any technical failure during launch or operation can result in the loss of years of effort and vast public funding. Because such technologies are extremely expensive, only a few scientifically advanced nations or international collaborations can afford them. This technological dependence slows the pace of discovery, limits global participation, and creates inequality in access to cutting-edge astrophysical research and observational facilities [6-9].

Budgetary Pressures

The economic burden of astrophysical research is a significant drawback, as many projects demand enormous financial resources. Large-scale initiatives, including space telescopes, particle observatories, and deep-space missions, often require billions of dollars in public funding. For instance, the James Webb Space Telescope cost over $10 billion from development to launch, making it one of the most expensive scientific instruments in history. While such projects advance human understanding of the universe, critics argue that this investment may seem disconnected from urgent societal needs like healthcare, education, or poverty reduction, particularly in developing countries. Allocating vast sums to explore distant galaxies or black holes can spark debates over ethical priorities and resource distribution. Governments and funding agencies must balance the pursuit of fundamental scientific knowledge with immediate social responsibilities. This economic challenge highlights the tension between humanity’s curiosity about the cosmos and the practical needs of people on Earth [7].

Conceptual and Philosophical Limitations

Astrophysics faces important conceptual and philosophical limitations that arise from the nature of the universe and the limits of human knowledge. Many astrophysical theories are mathematically elegant and logically consistent, yet they remain difficult or impossible to verify through direct observation. Ideas such as cosmic inflation, multiverses, dark energy, and string-inspired cosmologies push science to the edge of what can be tested. When experimental evidence is lacking, theory often fills the gap, increasing the risk of speculation. Unlike laboratory sciences, astrophysics cannot perform controlled experiments; it can only observe distant signals from the past. This makes knowledge uncertain and often provisional. The vastness of time and space challenges human understanding, prompting deep philosophical questions about existence, meaning, certainty, and the nature of truth in our universe. Thus, astrophysics frequently blurs the boundary between physics and philosophy, reminding us that scientific explanations are shaped not only by mathematics and technology but also by human limitations [10, 11].

Simulation-Driven Research Challenges

A major limitation of astrophysics is its heavy dependence on sophisticated computer simulations. Contemporary research often relies on numerical models to investigate phenomena such as galaxy formation, stellar evolution, and the universe’s large-scale structure. These simulations enable exploration of scenarios impossible to recreate in laboratories, yet they are highly sensitive to assumptions, initial conditions, and uncertain parameters. For instance, models of galaxy formation can yield vastly different results depending on how dark matter, gas dynamics, or star formation processes are represented. Even minor adjustments to input parameters can produce contrasting predictions, generating ambiguity rather than certainty. Consequently, while simulations are invaluable for guiding our understanding of cosmic processes, they cannot fully substitute observational evidence. This reliance underscores the tentative nature of theoretical astrophysics and the ongoing debates among competing models [12].

Communication Gap with Public

Astrophysics faces a notable communication gap with the public. Many discoveries in the field are highly abstract, mathematically complex, and conceptually challenging, making them difficult for non-specialists to fully understand. For example, concepts like black hole singularities or dark energy involve advanced physics and equations that are not easily conveyed in simple terms. This complexity can lead to misinterpretation or exaggeration in popular media, sometimes creating misconceptions about cosmic events. A case in point is the 2012 media coverage of the Large Hadron Collider, where some reports falsely suggested it could destroy the Earth, causing public alarm. Similarly, sensationalized accounts of asteroid impacts or black hole threats can distort the real scientific context. These challenges underscore the importance of clear, accurate science communication to bridge the gap between cutting-edge astrophysical research and public understanding [13].

Role of Quantum Computing

Quantum computing has the potential to significantly address several limitations and drawbacks of astrophysics by providing unprecedented computational power and new ways to model complex systems. Here’s how it can help:

Handling Complex Simulations: Many astrophysical phenomena—such as galaxy formation, stellar evolution, or black hole dynamics—require extremely large-scale simulations with countless interacting variables. Classical computers often struggle with these calculations due to exponential complexity. Quantum computers can process vast amounts of information simultaneously using qubits, allowing for faster and more accurate simulations of highly complex cosmic systems [14].
Reducing Uncertainty in Models: Astrophysical models rely on approximations and assumptions because of incomplete data. Quantum computing can efficiently explore many possible configurations at once, improving predictions for systems like dark matter distributions or the behavior of dense stellar objects [15].
Analyzing Big Data: Modern astrophysics produces enormous datasets from telescopes, satellites, and particle detectors. Quantum algorithms can accelerate the analysis of this data, identifying subtle patterns and correlations that might be missed by classical methods, which can refine theories and reduce ambiguity [16].
Optimizing Instrument Design: Designing advanced detectors, space telescopes, or particle observatories involves complex optimization problems. Quantum computing can explore optimal configurations more efficiently, enhancing sensitivity and reducing technological limitations [17].
Exploring Theoretical Physics: Certain aspects of astrophysics, such as quantum gravity, black hole thermodynamics, or early universe conditions, involve calculations that are practically impossible for classical computers. Quantum computing can simulate quantum-level interactions in extreme environments, providing insights that bridge theoretical speculation and observation [18].
Example: Simulating the interior of a neutron star or the quantum effects near a black hole is currently beyond classical computational reach due to extreme densities and relativistic conditions. Quantum computers could model these extreme environments more realistically, helping verify or refine existing astrophysical theories [19].

Thus, quantum computing offers a transformative tool for overcoming computational, theoretical, and technological barriers in astrophysics, potentially reducing uncertainty, enhancing simulations, and opening new avenues for discovery in regions of the universe previously inaccessible to study.

Conclusion

Astrophysics stands as one of the most remarkable achievements of modern science, offering profound insights into the origin, structure, and evolution of the universe. However, the field faces several significant limitations that shape its scope and progress. Observational constraints, such as the inability to directly manipulate distant stars or cosmic phenomena, restrict empirical verification. Technological dependency further challenges research, as advanced telescopes, detectors, and space missions require decades of development and substantial financial investment. The high economic costs of large-scale projects, combined with theoretical uncertainties in areas like dark matter, dark energy, and cosmic evolution, add additional layers of complexity. Recognizing these drawbacks does not diminish the importance of astrophysics; instead, it promotes a more balanced and critical understanding of what the field can achieve. By fostering intellectual humility, encouraging interdisciplinary collaboration, and ensuring responsible investment, astrophysics can continue to expand human knowledge while respecting the natural boundaries of the cosmos.

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Why Plants Grow Vertically Upwards?

Bishnu Charanarbinda Mohanty — Sun, 25 Jan 2026 05:17:57 +0000

Abstract

Certain events are so common that it skips the scientific enquiry as to why it is so? The natural growth of trees is directed vertically upwards. For such directional growth, a directional dominating force in the growing-front is essential. It is also seen that the direction can be changed responding to the direction of centrifugal force if the pot with the tree is kept on a spinning disc. Obviously, when the magnitude of centrifugal force is high, the natural directional force in the vertical direction becomes significant. Electric field influences plant growth, generally leading to increased germination rates, and accelerated growth depending on factors like the field strength, duration, and polarity of the field. This article has discussed the possible nature of forces that grow plants vertically upward direction.

Key wards: growth direction of trees, field forces in plant growth, electric field of earth, field effect on plant growth.

Introduction

Plants like animals require food for survival. The plants require sunlight for synthesis of their food and many physiological processes. Plants kept inside a room facing a window are seen to bend towards the window to get more sunlight. From this phenomenon, one might say that the plants grow upward because the mean position of the sun is vertically upward. When a plant grows upward the mass of the plant increases and the center of gravity of the plant shifts upward. In the growth process the plant is doing work against gravity. Obviously, some vertically upward force stronger than gravity is in action and we need to understand the same.

Discussion

Only in the equatorial zone, the sun’s mean position is vertical. However, in higher latitudes (polar regions) the sunlight is always oblique and the mean position of the sun is also inclined to the vertical. If the above hypothesis is correct, then all trees in higher latitudes would have been tilted towards the Equator (Fig.1). In fact, this does not happen. Obviously, there is a stronger vertically upward field force acting on the growing-front of the trees which promotes the growth of trees in vertically upward direction against gravity. On surveying the various fields (potential gradients) present near the surface of the Earth, we notice the presence of three distinct types of fields. They are: (1) the gravity field, (2) the positive electric field on average 100 volts/meter and 3) the negative thermal field (6oC/km). Beside the above fields; there may be some less-known fields. Let us examine how the growth of trees respond to the thermal and the electric fields.

We are aware as to how the growing front advances in solidification of ice and metal. The nature of microstructure formed during solidification is a complex function of the solidification rate, temperature gradient, chemical composition and several material characteristics such as phase equilibrium reactions, nucleation and growth kinetics of the phases and crystallographic constraints [1]. During the solidification of ice, metals, and ceramics, various microstructures can form, including dendritic (tree type microstructure), cellular, and equiaxed. Metals often exhibit dendritic structures, which are branching crystal formations [2]. The growing front at the solid liquid interface gives rise to formation of several microstructural phases responding to both thermal and electric fields. For example, the solidification of cast iron composition at normal cooling rates (thermal gradient in sand castings) develops dendritic structure. The shape of the tree structure is a function of the concentration gradient of the solute atoms and the degree of thermal gradient. Additionally, electric and magnetic fields do produce prominent effects on the directional growth of the dendrite phase. The growth processes of trees and solidification of metals have some similarity. The ordering of atoms in both, are organized by the local interactions (electric charge forces and thermal charge forces). Any external charge field has the scope to directionally drift the ions and the ionic clusters present in the proximity of the growing front to directionally orient the microstructure of solid in the direction of the field. Since these ions and the clusters are yet to be attached to the growing solid, they respond to the external fields in setting their position in the solidification front.

We may now examine the growth process of trees. Permanently embryonic tissue involved in cell division at the apices of roots and stems are known as apical meristem. These meristems usually consist of small, densely packed cytoplasmic cells which get established during embryo development and divide, producing the primary plant body of root and soot that form the dynamic regions of growth. Below the apical meristems, tissue differentiation begins. The protoderm gives rise to the epidermal system, the procambium to the primary vascular system and the ground meristem to the pith and cortex. The root apical meristem is covered by a root cap which is responsible for perceiving gravitational changes [3]. The shoot apices vary greatly in size and shape. The shape of the Cycas revoluta may be elongated, conical, dome-shaped, flat, or even slightly concave. Apices increase in size during the development of a single plant, however, the surrounding cells are also mitotically active which give rise to plants with multicellular apical meristems. The outer layer of cells (tunica) is the growing front which exhibits a growth in a direction opposite to the gravity field [4]. The phenomenon of directional growth of plant organs in response to gravity is termed as gravitropism or geotropism. It is difficult to justify preferences in the existing gravitational interaction for the root cap and the tunica. However, the new interpretation of gravity from mass-space interaction has scope of explaining the above phenomena [5]. Further, the cause of electric charge interaction can also be understood from the new mass-space interaction [6]. However, the strength of mass-space interaction between matters in neutral state and that in charge state differ by many orders of magnitude due to the nature of densities of mass and space. Both mass and charge interactions being fundamentally caused by mass-space interaction, the net force can be determined from the algebraic sum of gravitational interaction and charge interaction. The net force can be directly evaluated from mass-space interaction of matter in a charged state having variation in mass-space composition [6].

In the present concept the surface of the earth is composed of neutral matter with zero absolute charge. But in the new concept charge appears in matter when there is a difference between the mass-space ratio of the matter and that of its surrounding matter. Thus, charge is a relative property and charge neutrality appears in matters at equal charge potentials state [6]. Hence, the zero-charge potential of the surface of the earth refers to a definite absolute charge potential which is the same everywhere on the surface of the earth. The absolute potential of the surface of the earth is taken as reference zero for the relative charge potential scale to measure the charge potential of different levels of atmosphere, as well as to measure the potential of artificially produced charged bodies. The interior of the earth is positively charged with respect to the zero charge of the surface [8]. By appropriately increasing the absolute value of the reference zero charge potential, the interior of the earth remains positively charged while the crust becomes negatively charged.

The matter of the surface of the earth has a definite mass-space ratio that corresponds to zero relative charge potential. The mass rich matter with mass-space ratio higher than that of the surface-matter of the earth are positively charged and the space rich matter with mass-space ratio lower than that of the matter on the surface of the earth are negatively charged [6]. Due to the effect of electric charge, the negatively charged matter experiences an increased pull towards the center of the earth and positively charged matter experiences a decreased pull towards the center of the earth as compared to gravitational interaction of neutral matter. In germination of seeds the primary plant body of root senses stronger gravity and makes its way into the soil (positive gravitropism) and the primary plant body of soot senses weaker gravity where it is pushed up by the internal charge interaction and external charge field forces (negative gravitropism). The plant body being a good conductor of electricity, the electric charge potential of all parts of the plant remains nearly at earth’s electric potential. The electric potential of the lower atmosphere has a positive electric field in vertically upward direction. With reference to the charge potential of the surface of the earth the electric potential of the atmosphere is positive. Alternatively, the ground potential or the potential of any parts of the tree becomes negative with respect to the potential of the atmosphere. Thus, the plant as a whole, particularly the growing top of the tree experiences the electrical field force. The downward movement of root and upward movement of soot is understandable from the new concept of gravity and the effect of existing positive electric fields in the atmosphere.

When the soot enters into the atmosphere having a positive charge potential gradient of 100v/m it experiences upward force from the electric field. The growing front remains always at a lower charge potential due to charge conduction from the surface of the earth. The negatively charged growing soot experiences a vertically upward force from the positive charge field of the atmosphere. This promotes the growth of a plant in a vertically upward direction. The growing front of the root being relatively more charge-negative experiences stronger gravity which makes it advance downward. This hypothesis is in full agreement with experimental results. Exposure to an electric field influence plant growth, generally leading to increased germination rates, and sometimes accelerated growth and development. The effects of an electric field on plant growth depends on factors like the field strength, duration, and polarity of the field [7].

It is well known that the surface of the Earth is negatively charged with respect to the atmosphere above. If an electric conductor is raised from ground level, then positive charges from the atmosphere are attracted towards the conductor and they are seen to crowd around the top of the conductor which ensures the positive nature of the field in the atmosphere. A tree is a natural good ionic conductor. Thus, when the tree top attracts the positively charged particles including the ions of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere towards the growing front, the growing front is thus pulled by the positive ions causing directional growth of the plant. The negative ions from the ground are also attracted towards the top of the tree. The field assisted motion of ions and the ionic clusters towards the growing fronts promotes the directional growth of the plants.

Conclusion

The effect of the impressed charge field on germination and growth rate has been noticed experimentally. It is also known that there exists a positive electric field of 100v/m in the lower atmosphere. Therefore, the natural growth of trees in vertically upward direction is well justified from the nature of electric fields present at the lower atmosphere of the earth.

References

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Micro-Micro Structure of Interfaces and Photonic Charge Field: A Reality-Based Classical Explanation of Reflection and Refraction of Light

Bishnu Charanarbinda Mohanty — Sun, 25 Jan 2026 04:46:53 +0000

Abstract

The wave particle duality accepted for light is conceptually inconsistent and against the consistent norms of nature. Light is conceptualized differently in different contexts such as light is a wave packet, a point particle, a field excitation but there is no definite consensus for any one of these concepts. It is also postulated that light waves do not require a medium which is far from reality. On the other hand, the particle concept of light is feasible therefore is a reality, however, it fails to explain many phenomena of light. The fault lies with the defective understanding of the structure of the light particle, the ignorance of the non-electric charge state of the light particle and the structure & non-electric charge field in the medium and in the interface. Light particles while moving from one medium to another medium essentially pass through the interface of the mediums where it exhibits different phenomena such as reflection, refraction of light. Thus, a clear understanding of the structure and field of the interface becomes a vital issue for the field particle interaction in interpreting the surface phenomena of light. In macro scale the interface has zero thickness but in micro domain scale its thickness spreads to few atomic dimensions. Again, the interface thickness becomes infinite in micro-micro domain scale (photonic scale). Thus, a light particle has enough room for its dynamics in the photonic charge field within the interface. The photonic charge field within the structure of the interface medium is formed by micro-micro domain space matter particles (light particles). In the new concept, the light particles have rest mass, mass-space structure and carry photonic charge and the interface zone has a photonic charge field. While the new model of light particles and the new understanding of interface have scope of explaining all phenomena of light, this paper explains the reflection & refraction of light from classical analysis.

Key words: Micro-micro structure, Light particles, Reflection of light, Refraction of light,Wave particle duality, Wave packet, Point particle, Field excitation.

Discussion

The universe is a continuum of mass-space systems, where mass contains space and space contains space-matter-particles [1]. Space has a continuum in the universe and matter has discrete form in it. Due to mass-space interaction, any discrete form of matter remains connected with other matters of the universe. Discrete matter is surrounded by a space medium therefore the surface of matter (solid or liquid) is essentially the interface between matter and space or between any two types of matter with different density. At the macroscopic scale, the interface is treated as having zero thickness. In the micro-domain scale, the same interface extends over a few atomic dimensions. At the micro-micro domain scale, the interface no longer has a finite boundary and effectively spreads over an infinite thickness (Fig.1). The interface structure is influenced by the structures of two interfacing mediums.

At present the structural component of matter is limited to micro particles hence the conceptualized structure is limited to micro structure and the charge field is limited to electric field. Thus, it is difficult to perceive the micro structure of the thin interface comprising micro particles and the electric field within it. The present author has introduced the rest mass of micro-micro domain particles (light particles) and their non-electric charge state (photonic charge state) [2], [3]. This opens up new avenues on the existence of micro-micro domain structure within a micro structure or a self-standing micro-micro structure in space/vacuum.

The micro-micro domain structure within the micro structure of the interfacing mediums also contains micro-micro particles in free-state carrying photonic charge similar to the existence of free electrons in micro structure. The two interfacing surfaces have different number densities of micro-micro domain particles carrying photonic charge in free-state and form a stiff photonic charge potential gradient within the interface. Thus, a strong photonic field exists within the interface due to the stiff potential gradient in micro-micro domain scale which takes part in field particle interaction in rendering different surface phenomena of light particles. The newly identified micro-micro structure of the interface having a strong photonic charge field plays a vital role in the new classical dynamics of light particles carrying photonic charge. The revamped classical physics has a great scope for analysing the different phenomena of light from field-particle interaction.

Existing concept of light particle

In modern physics, the light particle is called a photon. It emerges from quantum electrodynamics (QED) and is clubbed with the classical electromagnetic wave theory and quantum mechanics. It is not a particle in the classical sense thus it has no volume, radius, or internal structure but behaves like a particle. Light is also considered as a wave. Again, the light wave is not a classical wave but behaves like a wave. Light waves exist even without a medium. The light particles are conceptualised to have momentum without mass, spin without a geometrical form and charge-neutral without the knowledge of non-electric charge. Light particles have a constant velocity without slowing down or speeding up and cannot turn around through v → 0 → –v like classical objects. Light is conceptualized differently such as light is a wave packet, a point particle, a field excitation for different purposes but there is no definite consensus for any one of these concepts.

Structures of light particle and medium in the new concept

The wave particle duality accepted for light in modern science is conceptually inconsistent and against the consistent norms of nature. While analysing different phenomena of light we make use of classical terminologies such as particle, wave, momentum etc. each having specific significance in macro domain that justifies the defined terms but in micro domain, scientists have used the terminologies of macro domain physics while liberally altering the defined parameters that qualify their stand. For example, particle in any domain has to have the aspect properties of particle (mass, structure etc.) and the medium has to have the necessary modulus of elasticity if it has to execute the light wave. No doubt, the unnatural assumptions coupled with the unnatural theoretical treatment yields results but this can’t be the confirmation of the assumptions or the theory describing different aspects of nature. On the other hand, one can’t rule out the possibility of new theoretical analysis of classical physics with the consideration of less-known objects and events of micro-micro domain for understanding the micro domain physics and different phenomena of light in a natural manner.

In the new concept, light particles have mass in the photonic mass unit [4], mass-space structure with nucleus and extra-nuclear space structure [5], charge in photonic charge units [3], spin and energy with energy level [6]. The space medium also has a fine structure comprising micro-micro particles (light particles and other field forming particles) as space matter particles. Thus, classical physics has a new scope of dealing with micro domain physics and micro-micro domain physics in a clear conceptual manner. Proper insight into the existence of matter in finer and finer domains, below micro domain provides new scope of understanding micro phenomena and the phenomena of light while retaining the commonsense knowledge and the cause-to-effect analogy [7]. If the natural concept with mathematical analysis can yield results, then there is no need to pursue a mathematical concept with mathematical analysis. If the straightforward answer is interpretable in the natural manner from classical physics, then we may not have to make unnatural hypotheses to interpret the reality. When all sciences are aimed at discovering the reality of nature, modern science alone stands on a different footing by keeping aside the commonsense knowledge and cause-to-effect analogy. Appropriate modification of the concepts of micro-domain science and the theory of light would help to reframe the science in the light of reality. Thereafter, finding harmony among different sciences would not be a problem since the basic assumptions in all sciences remain the same. The dynamics of classical physics is enough to explain different phenomena of light with the insight to micro-micro domain structure and the non-electric charge of light particles.

Any solid object has a boundary which is recognized as the surface of the object. There exists another medium beyond the boundary of the solid which may be solid, liquid, gas or space having different density. Thus, what we normally refer as the surface, in reality, refers only to the interface of two different mediums such as solid-solid interface, solid-liquid interface, solid-gas interface, solid-space interface, liquid-liquid interface (immiscible liquids), liquid-gas interface, liquid-space interface. All forms of macro matter are known to have been composed of microscopic atoms. Thus, a smooth surface in macroscopic scale has a rough surface with high degree of unevenness in microscopic scale due to the discrete placement of surface atoms (Fig.2).

A football with spherical surface in macro scale can rebound from a flat macro surface made of atoms obeying the law of rebound i.e. the angle of approach equal to the angle of rebound (Fig.3).

However, if a football is made to rebound from the surface of a solid formed by packing of footballs, it will not obey the law of rebound. Likewise, if a micro particle is made to reflect from a smooth flat macro surface, theoretically it should not obey the law

of reflection since the reflecting surface is very uneven in microscopic scale. But in reality, the micro particles (atomic particles) and the micro-micro particles (light particles) are seen reflecting from a smooth macro surface even though the surface is very rough in microscopic scale and very-very rough in micro-microscopic scale. Theoretically it is impossible to expect the optical flatness of a surface built up by atomic particles. Even when we consider the surface is formed by micro-micro domain particles, then also the surface can’t have the optical flatness for reflection of light particles because the surface remains rough in micro-micro domain scale. This breeds doubt on particle theory of light. On the other hand, we can’t accept the wave concept of light since light waves are just not feasible without a medium or with a medium not having the required modulus of elasticity for propagation of waves. Hence the wave concept is unthinkable. Thus, the natural phenomena of light cannot be justified following the unnatural wave theory of light. However, the particle concept of light being feasible and realistic remains as the only way to understand the reflection and refraction of light. Hence, it is required to understand the true significance of optical flatness of the interface.

For conceptualizing the significance of optical flatness, we may examine the extra-nuclear space structure of a celestial body (say the earth), close to the surface of the earth. There exist a polarized electric potential structure and a polarized photonic charge structure (thermal charge structure) in the extra-nuclear space structure of the earth near the surface [8]. The electric charge polarized structure in the (atmosphere) of a macro celestial body is formed by the electric charge interaction and gravity in the di-electric air medium [8]. In the like manner the photonic charge polarized structure forms within the interface medium due to electric and photonic charge interactions (Fig.4).

The surface of the earth is quite uneven in macroscopic scale due to the existence of mountains and valleys but the E and F layers of ionospheres are evenly smooth. Definite electromagnetic emissions are reflected from the smooth curvatures of E and F layers of the ionosphere obeying the law of reflection. It is rational to assume that the radiation particles are reflected from the equipotential parallel planes in the charge field barrier which behaves as an optically smooth spherical plane despite the uneven surface of the earth. The field-particle-interaction observed in the ionosphere of the earth is quite tempting for understanding the reflection of light from the photonic field barrier within the interface. Even though the surface of the earth is rough, the ionospheric electron density curve of the E & F layer remains smooth (excluding the variation during the time of the day). One can anticipate polarized photonic charge potential layers within the interface that provides the optical flatness even though the morphology of the atomic front is non-planar in macroscopic and microscopic scales.

In the new concept, light particles have mass and structure in photonic scale units with a nucleus and extra nuclear space structure similar to the structure and features of the new atomic system or the solar system [5]. The light particles of micro-micro domain form the less known micro-micro structure in micro particles and macro bodies. Hence, a macro body has co-existing structures in three domains (macro structure, micro structure and micro-micro structure) (Fig.5) and the same is also discussed elsewhere [4].

The micro-micro structure of matter exists in the extra nuclear space structure of atoms and in the inter atomic space. Thus, the micro-micro particles have a great role in forming the fine structure of any surface/interface. This aspect is ignored in the present concept. According to the present science, the surface atoms are considered to have unsatisfied-bond or “dangling bonds” due to the unsymmetrical placement of neighbouring atoms. The dangling bond of the surface atoms associates unpaired electron density localized near the surface atom. This causes charge polarization in the surface atoms. The polarized surface atom produces an electric field within the proximity of adjacent gaseous/space medium which modifies the surface features in a broad sense [9].

The surface states and polarization produce localized electric fields responsible for surface potential barriers (Schottky barriers). These fields are extremely localized (typically over a few angstroms) and give rise to a surface potential barrier [10]. In the new three domain structure of solid, the surface photons of micro-micro domain structure may be anticipated to produce photonic charge polarized fields at the interface. Like the surface electric field, the photonic field may be considered localized that gives rise to the formation of a photonic charge field barrier at the surface/interface. The flat macroscopic surface generated by the micro particles of micro structure is rough in micro domain scale. Similarly, the flat microscopic surface generated by micro-micro particles of micro-micro structure is rough in micro-micro domain scale and the flat micro-micro structure is rough in micro-micro domain scale. But the photonic equipotential planes within the photonic field remain optically flat in micro-micro domain scale.

The surface of a solid has a new significance with the consideration of a new micro-micro structure of the interface zone. The interface structure is composed of micro-micro domain particles which is distinctly different from the structures of the interfacing mediums comprising particles of micro domain and micro-micro domain (Fig.6(a) Fig.6(b)).

The thickness of the structured interface in micro-micro domain scale is quite large to visualize the fine structures of the interface and the field present in it. The interface structure is different from the structure of dense solid phase and the structure of gaseous phase or vacuum. Few atomic layers in both the interfacing mediums are also affected due to the strong field at the interface. The space density and the number density of the space matter particles vary spatially within the interface (Fig.7).

The strong photonic field prevailing in the interface fluid (photonic fluid) forms a plurality of photonic charge polarized layers in micro-micro domain scale within the interface which plays the primary role for different surface phenomena of light. The photonic charge-polarized planes within the interface are optically flat for the reflection and refraction of light particles. In the new interpretation, the unrealistic wave concept of light becomes redundant.

The interaction of photon with polarized photonic charge field barriers

The earth is a solid body and has its extra-nuclear structure (atmosphere). Beyond the extra nuclear structure of the earth the space medium belongs to the extra nuclear space structure of the sun. The nature of structure of the atmosphere of the earth is a direct realization of the interface structure between solid earth and the space medium. The extra nuclear space structure of the earth contains space matter particles which are atoms and molecules. The number density of space matter particles is highest at the surface of the earth and decreases towards the boundary of the terrestrial system. Further the size of space matter particles goes on decreasing towards the boundary. This predicts the existence of finer and finer atoms below hydrogen atom [Appendix-1] as space matter particles in the outer part of extra nuclear space structure of the earth.

Different light particles with different energy levels enter to different depths of the polarized field and are reflected from there. But in the case of transparent material the polarized field barrier is reduced due to conductivity of photons, like the polarized electric charge is not feasible in a conducting material. The light particles entering the body of transparent material at an angle with the normal, change their path in the photonic field of the interface.

The co-existence of micro structure and micro-macro structure within a macro solid medium envisions the presence of electric charge interaction for the formation and stability of micro structure and the photonic charge interactions for the formation and stability of micro-micro structure. There exists electric charge potential within inter atomic space and photonic charge potential within inter photonic space due to the presence of free (unbound) electrons and free (unbound) photons. Similarly, electric potential and photonic potential exist within other states of the material medium as well as within the space medium. The number density of unpaired electrons and unpaired photons in a macro structure may be assumed as the direct function of the number density of paired charge particles in micro domain and micro-micro domain due to mass proportionate imperfections in the structure. Thus, the inter atomic space within a solid, has an electric space charge potential and a photonic space charge potential. Any space pocket contains space matter particles. If the unpaired space matter particle is atomic and sub-atomic particle then the space charge potential and the field are electric in nature. On the other hand, if the space pocket additionally contains unpaired photons, then the space charge potential and the field are photonic in nature. An electric charge particle will interact with the electric charge field whereas the photonic charge particle (light particle) will interact with the photonic charge field. Referring to Fig.7 the space charge potential (photonic charge potential) in inter atomic space of solid is very high due to high density of unpaired photons but the field is zero as there is very little potential gradient. However, a weak photonic field exists only up to a few atomic layers at the surface.

On the other hand, the inter atomic space potential (photonic potential) in gaseous medium is low and the field is also negligible. Thus, there exists a great potential difference across the opposite faces of the interfacing medium. Hence, there exists a very high potential gradient across the thin layer of interface. The thickness of the interface in macro domain scale is zero and that in micro domain scale has a definite value and that again in micro-micro domain scale is very-very large. No micro particle (atomic/sub-atomic particle) finds a placement within the thin interface layer however the interface layer contains space matter particles in micro-micro domain (light particles) both in bound and free state. Due to potential difference across two faces of the interface zone a smooth potential gradient is expected if the medium is resistive but the medium being di-photonic (following the terminology of dielectric) a charge polarized structure appears basing upon the surface of denser medium.

For a transparent material, the potential difference across the interface is relatively small where the polarised field barrier is weak. The polarized photonic structure in the interface zone of opaque and transparent materials is shown in Fig.8. The positively charged light particles while entering normal to the interface experiences repulsion from the positive photonic charge field in addition to the drag forces of the medium. Hence, light particles of different energy levels penetrate to different depths in the interface before its velocity becomes zero. Thereafter, the light particle reverses its direction due to field effect. The normal incident ray is reflected back normal to the surface.

Reflection of light making an angle with the normal

Micro atomic and subatomic particles can have positive, negative or zero electric charge states. Likewise, the micro-micro domain particles (light particles) can have positive, negative or zero photonic charge states. Light particles producing visibility of objects are positively charged photons. Negatively charged photons do not produce visibility of objects, therefore they are not noticed. The vertical component of velocity of light particles is retarded while moving through the positive photonic charge field and is accelerated in the negative photonic charge field.

The interface, the field particle interaction and the trajectory of light particles undergoing reflection is shown in Fig.9. The real trajectory is shown in red lines. The incident light ray at an angle ‘i’ with the normal to the interface has two components in mutually perpendicular directions, 1) normal to the surface 2) parallel to the surface. The vertical component of a light particle is decelerated during its transit from point ‘1’ to ‘2’. The velocity becomes zero at point ‘2’. Thereafter the vertical component of the light particle is accelerated during its journey from point ‘2’ to ‘3’. The geometrical details during the transit of light particles from ‘1’ to ‘3’ via point ‘2’ or disappear in macro domain scale, thus giving an illusion of the virtual trajectory following the path 1- 4- 3. The normal component interacts with the field and undergoes deacceleration due to field particle interaction similar to the normal-incident-light discussed above. If the time to reach zero normal velocity is ∆t then the displacement in the direction normal to the interface is Vcos i 2 ×∆t (average velocity time) and the displacement in the direction parallel to the interface is sin i × ∆t. The magnitude of photonic field experienced by the light particle while approaching the interface and leaving the interface remaining same, the time taken for leaving the interface is also ∆t. The normal component of the velocity after time ∆t is equal to -Vcos i . The normal and parallel velocity components at point of approach to the interface are Vcos i and V sin i and at point of leaving the interface are -V cos i and V sin i . Hence, the angle of incidence i is same as the angle of reflection r.

Refraction of light

For photon conducting material (transparent material) the interface is also partially conductive, hence the polarised photonic barrier is small. Thus, light particles easily pass through the field barrier. However, the light particles in their transit through the polarised field of interface undergo field particle interaction where the velocity component of light particle normal to the interface is decelerated in the positive field and subsequently accelerated in the negative photonic field, thereby changing its direction after it passes through the interface. Referring to figure-10, the incident ray inclined at an angle i with the normal enters the interface at point ‘1’ and passes through the positive photonic field between ‘1’ and ‘2’. The normal velocity component of a light particle gradually reduces while passing through the positive photonic field. Hence the magnitude and the direction of the resultant velocity of light particles changes. Thereafter, the light particle enters into the zone of negative photonic field where the normal component of the velocity is accelerated between the points ‘2’ and ‘3’.

If the magnitude of deceleration and acceleration are same then there should not be any change in direction. But this is not the case in refraction of light. The negative field between ‘2’ and ‘3’ being closer to the denser medium, is stronger than the positive field between ‘1’ and ‘2’. Because the net acceleration of the vertical component is more than the net deceleration, the light ray entering a denser medium bends towards the normal after passing through the interface. The reverse phenomena occurs when light ray from a denser medium enters into a rarer medium.

The light particles passing through a parallel transparent material plate experiences both rarer medium to denser medium and denser medium to rarer medium at entry and exit of the parallel plate (Fig.11). The field structure of interface at entry and exit points of a given transparent material being same, the emergent ray becomes parallel to the incident ray with an offset of ∆x. The transit of light particle from rarer medium to denser medium causing refraction is explained by classical dynamics through field particle interaction as it moves from point ‘1’ to ‘4’ and again, the transit from denser to rarer medium is explained by field particle interaction during its motion from point ‘5’ to ‘8’.

Conclusion

The reflection and refraction taking place on a macro surface of zero thickness doesn’t provide any room for analysing the surface effect through classical dynamics since the dimension-less spatial point is a black box that promotes only quantum analysis. The new exploration into finer micro-micro domain and realization of mass, physical structure and non-electric charge of light particles and the fine structure of the medium has successfully provided new understanding of reflection and refraction mechanisms from classical physics point of view. The new perception of micro-micro domain physics and the new state property of light particles and medium has enough scope to deal with other phenomena of light without entertaining duality.

Reference

Appendix-1

It is not logically correct to declare hydrogen as the absolute lower limit of an atom if reality admits a nucleus smaller than a proton whose spectral signatures overlap with known atoms. Hydrogen is the smallest atom only within the validity of the proton–electron model. If reality contains sub-protonic nuclei, then the present lower limit collapses. Spectral overlap would hide such atoms from detection. Therefore, the “hydrogen limit” is not an absolute truth — only a model-dependent boundary. The present author analyses the feasibility of atoms smaller than hydrogen atoms. Structural similarity exists between atomic systems and the celestial body systems (solar system, planet system, asteroid system etc.) in respect of nucleus and extra-nuclear structure formed by orbital bodies/particles. Recently, the extra nuclear structure has been conceptualised differently as extra-nuclear space structure where the structure is formed in the space matrix containing space matter particles in finer domain and orbital bodies/particles in the same domain as the nucleus but smaller in size [5]. Further, the space matter particles organize different shell-structures with charge features and the orbital celestial bodies are placed in potential cavities resulting in a definite discrete orbit pattern like the discrete orbits of the atomic system [11]. Thus, many similarities are now found existing in the extra nuclear space structures of centrally organized systems in different domains. Hence, it is rational to think that similarity between the structure of the nucleus celestial body and nucleus of an atom also exist without our knowledge of the same. All celestial bodies in the macro domain are composed of atomic matter which are one domain down the domain size of the celestial body. We never assume that large celestial bodies are built up by small celestial bodies (satellites, asteroids, meteors etc.). Even when the mass of the earth is 81 times the mass of the moon, no one says, the earth is made up of 81 moons. Following the structural similarity between the nucleus celestial body and the atomic nucleus, one can as well suggest, the nuclei of atoms are composed of micro-micro domain particles (light particles) particularly when they have physical existence with mass in the new concept. In view of the above, the present structure of the atomic nucleus comprising proton-electron is only a model-based-concept and it may not correspond to the reality of nature. This allows the feasibility of finer and finer atoms below the hydrogen atom. This provides justification for the gradual decrease of the size and the number density of space matter particles towards the boundary.

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Institute of Philosophy of Nature

Unified Field Theory: Indians Part of Research

Abstract

Introduction

Satyendra Nath Bose

Gaganbihari Bandyopadhyay

R. Rao

Ratna Shanker Mishra

Jogesh Chandra Pati

Conclusion

References

Ancient Indian Thought Contributing to The Field of Mathematics and Science

Abstract

Mathematics

Physics

Reference

Analysis of Polarization and Scattering of Light Through the New Particle Concept

Abstract

Introduction

Discussion

Factors promoting attachment of charge particles with positively charged photon in charge polarisation of light

Spin polarisation of light particle

Scattering of light

Conclusion

Reference

Interference and Diffraction of light

Abstract

Introduction

Discussion

Interference

Diffraction

Bending of light near sharp edges

Diffraction of light passing through single slit

Diffraction of light passing through double slit

Conclusion

Reference

Grazing of light

Abstract

Introduction

Discussion

Conclusion

Reference

Necessity Is the Mother of Invention: Invention Is the Unification of All Sciences

Abstract

Prelude To Invention, Wisdom, Life Force and Edible EnergyPrelude to Invention

Wisdom and Life Force

Edible Energy

Innovative Idea is the key to Invention, an Outline of Innovation Management matrix

Basic Innovations

Breakthrough Innovation

Disruptive Innovations

Sustaining Innovation

All Forms of Energy Including Edible Energy, Laws of Thermodynamics & Consciousness

Conclusion

Acknowledgement

References

Unified Field Theory: Chinese Vision Through Yin-Yang Philosophy

Abstract

Introduction

What is Yin-Yang philosophy

The Yangton and Yington Hypothesis

The Yin-Yang Theory

Virtumanity – Yin Yang Physics – UFT

Yin-Yang Theory and Complex Mechanics

Conclusion

References

Drawbacks of Science in the Field of Astrophysics and Role of Quantum Computing

Abstract

Indirect Observation

Inaccessibility of Astronomical Phenomena

Infrastructure and Equipment Barrier

Budgetary Pressures

Conceptual and Philosophical Limitations

Simulation-Driven Research Challenges

Communication Gap with Public

Role of Quantum Computing

Conclusion

References

Why Plants Grow Vertically Upwards?

Abstract

Prelude To Invention, Wisdom, Life Force and Edible Energy
Prelude to Invention