Abstract

In the modern era of technology, chronic stress, emotional instability, and lack of concentration have become increasingly common among people in modern society, especially among younger generations. The existing biomedical approaches primarily address symptoms rather than long-term self-regulatory imbalance. This has highlighted the need for effective non-invasive methods capable of supporting systemic psychophysiological stability.

This study revisits breath-centered self-regulatory principles, historically developed in yogic science such as ‘Kriya Yoga’, through a computational systems framework designed to examine coordinated physiological regulation. We introduce the Multi-Modal Phase Coherence Index (MPCI) to quantify large-scale coordination across interacting respiratory, neural, autonomic, endocrine, and cognitive-emotional oscillators under biologically realistic conditions. The model incorporates sparse coupling, delayed interactions, and stochastic dynamics, and is evaluated using Monte Carlo simulations across irregular, moderate, and deep regulated breathing states.

Results show a consistent increase in global phase coherence with progressive respiratory regulation. Deep regulated breathing yielded the highest MPCI (Δ ≈ +0.0024 compared with irregular breathing) while preserving adaptive physiological variability.

These findings suggest that regulated breathing may support enhancements in multi-system coordination relevant to stress and emotional regulation. The proposed MPCI framework therefore provides a systems-level bridge between yogic principles and modern physiological modelling, offering a computational foundation for future empirical studies in neuroscience, physiology, and clinical research.

Keywords: Kriya Yoga, Body, Computational Investigation, Structured breath control, systems physiology.

Introduction

Modern Human Life and the Growing Need for Inner Stability

The modern world has brought extraordinary technological progress, yet many individuals continue to struggle with increasing psychological and emotional instability. Long working hours, continuous digital exposure, social pressure, emotional isolation, unhealthy routines, and constant mental stimulation have gradually affected the balance between mind and body. World mental health report (2022) says across different age groups, people increasingly report chronic stress, anxiety, disturbed sleep, emotional exhaustion, lack of concentration, anger dysregulation, and a persistent feeling of internal restlessness (World Health Organization, 2022; American Psychological Association, 2023). In many cases, individuals appear externally functional while internally experiencing fatigue, emotional overload, and reduced psychological resilience.

Modern medicine has made remarkable contributions in treating acute illness, infectious disease, and also severe psychiatric conditions. However, many health challenges are strongly influenced by long-term stress, lifestyle imbalance, emotional dysregulation, and reduced self-regulatory capacity. Pharmacological treatment often plays a role in symptom management, but many individuals continue to seek complementary approaches that support sustained emotional balance, mental clarity, and overall well-being beyond temporary relief alone. This growing need has encouraged scientific interest in non-invasive practices that may strengthen the body’s natural regulatory systems while supporting mental and emotional health (McCraty & Shaffer, 2015).

Among these approaches, ‘Kriya yoga’ and contemplative breathing practices have gained increasing global attention. Scientific research now suggests that yoga-based interventions may contribute to stress reduction, emotional stability, improved sleep, autonomic balance, and cognitive well-being (Tang et al., 2015; Zaccaro et al., 2018). Similarly, meditation and mindfulness-based practices are being studied for their potential influence on anxiety, emotional regulation, attentional control, and resilience against psychological stress. These developments have created an important bridge between ancient yogic and modern neuroscience, psychology, and integrative medicine.

Figure-1. Modern psychophysiological dysregulation and its resolution through Kriya Yoga regulated breathing. Contemporary stressors progressively impair autonomic, neural, and emotional regulation (left), whereas breath-centred Kriya Yoga practice (centre) supports the restoration of adaptive psychophysiological balance (right) through voluntary respiratory modulation of the autonomic nervous system.

Maharshi Patanjali and the Foundation of Yogic Self-Regulation

Long before the emergence of modern neuroscience and physiology, ancient Bhartiya philosophical traditions and yogic methods had already begun examining the relationship between breath, awareness, mental activity, and human suffering. One of the most influential contributors to this understanding was ‘Maharshi Patanjali’- The Father of Yoga, whose ‘Yoga Sutras’ remain among the foundational texts of classical yoga philosophy (Bryant, 2009).

Composed of 196 aphorisms, the Yoga Sutras present a systematic framework for understanding the nature of the human mind and the causes of psychological disturbance. Rather than viewing the mind as naturally stable, Maharshi Patanjali described it as continuously influenced by fluctuating thoughts, emotional reactions, desires, fears, memories, sensory distractions, and unconscious tendencies. According to this philosophy, uncontrolled mental fluctuations gradually disturb inner balance and become a major source of suffering in human life.

The purpose of yoga within Patanjali’s framework was therefore not just limited to physical exercise or practice alone. Yoga was described as a disciplined process of self-regulation through which individuals could gradually develop clarity, emotional steadiness, attentional stability, and deeper self-awareness (Feuerstein, 1989). Through practices involving concentration, breath regulation, restraint, meditation, and disciplined living, the practitioner move towards a more balanced and integrated state of being.

In many ways, Patanjali’s work may be understood as an early exploration of psychophysiological regulation. Although expressed through philosophical and spiritual language rather than modern biomedical terminology, the Yoga Sutras discuss processes closely related to emotional regulation, behavioural discipline, attentional control, and mental stabilization. Because now, for us, just as we understand the word biomedical as scientific, similarly at that time, the scriptures and their language Sanskrit were considered the most accepted, purest and scientific. Almost every sage and scholar used them to study, analyse, and apply (Pollock, 2006). These ideas emerged centuries before modern psychology and neuroscience formally studied cognition, autonomic balance, and stress physiology, yet they continue to remain deeply relevant to contemporary discussions on well-being and consciousness.

The Expansion of Kriya Yoga into Everyday Human Life through Mahavatar Babaji and Yogiraj Shyama Charan Lahiri Mahasaya

Kriya Yoga is a classical yogic discipline rooted in the Yoga Sutras of Maharshi Patanjali, composed over two millennia ago (Bryant, 2009). In this foundational text, Kriya Yoga is defined through three core principles: Tapah (disciplined practice), Svadhyaya (self-study), and Ishvarapranidhana (surrender to a higher organizing principle). Together, these elements describe a structured method for regulating internal states and cultivating sustained awareness. However, we the common people, came to know this invaluable practice through the lives and teachings of Yogiraj Shyama Charan Lahiri Mahasaya and Mahavatar Babaji Maharaj, as well as through their followers and disciples (Giri, 2005). They practiced, experienced and shared the infinite potential of consciousness (Chetna) with Humanity (Bharadwaj et al., 2025). They realized and explained that Kriya Yoga is the simplest method for attaining mental clarity and emotional balance. An approach that modern science now relates to behavioral conditioning, cognitive self-awareness, and emotional regulation (Tang et al., 2015; Zaccaro et al., 2018).

Within the “Kriya Yoga” tradition, figures such as Mahavatar Babaji, Yogiraj Shyama Charan Lahiri Mahasaya,Paramhansa Yoganandaand their disciples played a major role in preserving and spreading these teachings among common people.

This transition carried deep social significance because it suggested that inner discipline, self-regulation, and spiritual growth were not only limited to monastic environments. Common people living within family responsibilities, social obligations, emotional struggles, and professional pressures could also practice breath-centered meditation while remaining engaged in daily life.

Later, their disciples and followers introduced Kriya Yoga to a broader international audience and described it as a practical path for inner transformation, balanced living, and self-mastery (Yogananda, 1946). Their teachings emphasized that peace and fulfilment cannot be achieved through external success alone if the mind remains unstable and emotionally disturbed. Instead, lasting well-being arises through gradual mastery over one’s inner state.

This perspective remains deeply relevant in modern society, where many individuals struggle not only with external difficulties but also with unresolved emotional conflict, trauma, anxiety, anger, chronic stress, and psychological exhaustion. Within this broader philosophical tradition, Kriya Yoga came to be understood as a practical system for developing emotional resilience, inner steadiness, disciplined awareness, and a healthier relationship between mind and body.

Kriya Yoga as a Breath-Centered System of Psychophysiological Regulation

Kriya Yoga includes practices centered around controlled breathing, meditative awareness, inward attention, and disciplined observation of mental activity. Traditional yogic scripture often describes these practices through concepts such as Prāṇa, Nāḍīs,Kundalinī, Chakras, and Mudrās. In the present study, these concepts are approached as an experiential and systematic descriptions associated with internal regulation.

Within yogic philosophy, prāṇa is described as the vital force associated with life and movement, while nāḍīs are traditionally presented as channels through which this vital activity flows.

Among the centra main components of Kriya Yoga is regulated breathing. Modern scientific research increasingly supports the idea that breathing patterns strongly influence autonomic and emotional states. Slow and controlled breathing practices have been associated with improved heart rate variability, enhanced parasympathetic activation, reduced stress reactivity, and greater emotional stability (Jerath et al., 2006; Zaccaro et al., 2018; Laborde et al., 2017). These findings are particularly important because heart rate variability is widely recognized as a marker of adaptive autonomic flexibility and physiological resilience.

Research in contemplative neuroscience has further shown that respiration influences neural activity associated with attention, emotional processing, and cognition (Tort et al., 2018). Breathing rhythms appear capable of interacting with neural oscillations linked to awareness, sensory processing, and emotional regulation, suggesting that respiration functions not just as a metabolic process but also as an important regulator of brain-body communication.

Meditative practices associated with Kriya Yoga may additionally support emotional balance and reduced mental overactivity. Several studies involving meditation and yoga-based interventions have reported improvements in sustained attention, stress resilience, emotional awareness, and subjective well-being (Tang et al., 2015; Zaccaro et al., 2018). Some investigations have also explored neurochemical pathways related to gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), a neurotransmitter associated with emotional stability and reduced neural excitability (Streeter et al., 2010).

Taken together, these findings suggest that Kriya Yoga may function not only as a philosophical or spiritual discipline, but also as a structured system of psychophysiological self-regulation involving breath control, attentional training, emotional stabilization, and progressive refinement of internal awareness.

Health Benefits of Regulated Yogic Practice

The growing scientific interest in contemplative practices has encouraged researchers to examine how regulated breathing, meditative awareness, and yogic discipline may influence both physiological and psychological health. While the exact mechanisms continue to be investigated, existing studies increasingly suggest that structured breath-centered practices can support multiple dimensions of human well-being.

Table 1. Reported Physiological Benefits Associated with Regulated Yogic Breathing Practices

Domain	Reported Benefit	Scientific Interpretation	Representative Studies
Cardiovascular Regulation	Improved heart rate variability and blood pressure stability	Slow breathing supports autonomic flexibility and parasympathetic balance	(Jerath et al., 2006; Zaccaro et al., 2018); Laborde et al. (2017)
Stress Regulation	Reduction in stress-related physiological activation	Controlled respiration may reduce cortisol-associated stress responses and sympathetic overactivation	(Jerath et al., 2006; Zaccaro et al., 2018); Laborde et al. (2017)
Respiratory Efficiency	Improved oxygen utilization and breathing regulation	Rhythmic breathing may support metabolic efficiency and respiratory coordination	(Jerath et al., 2006; Zaccaro et al., 2018)
Physiological Resilience	Support for adaptive body regulation	Balanced autonomic activity may contribute to improved systemic resilience	Tang et al. (2015); Laborde et al. (2017)
Sleep and Recovery	Improved relaxation and restorative states	Reduced autonomic hyperarousal may support better recovery and sleep quality	Tang et al. (2015); Zaccaro et al. (2018)

Beyond physical health, these practices may also influence cognition, emotional stability, and internal awareness. Ancient yogic traditions consistently emphasized that mental suffering is intensified when attention becomes scattered and emotional reactions remain uncontrolled. Modern neuroscience increasingly supports the idea that breathing and meditative regulation can influence emotional processing and cognitive functioning through measurable physiological pathways.

Table 2. Reported Cognitive and Emotional Effects Associated with Yogic and Meditative Practices

Domain	Reported Effect	Scientific Interpretation	Representative Studies
Attention and Cognitive Clarity	Improved concentration and sustained awareness	Breath-focused attention may stabilize cognitive processing and attentional control	Tang et al. (2015); Tort et al. (2018)
Emotional Regulation	Reduced anxiety and emotional reactivity	Autonomic regulation may support emotional balance and reduced stress sensitivity	Tang et al. (2015); Zaccaro et al. (2018)
Neural Coordination	Improved interaction among functional brain regions	Rhythmic respiration and meditation may support integrated neural processing	Tang et al. (2015); Tort et al. (2018)
Self-Awareness	Greater inward observation and emotional insight	Meditative practices may strengthen interoceptive awareness and reflective processing	Tang et al. (2015)
Psychological Resilience	Improved ability to cope with stress and adversity	Disciplined self-regulation may support adaptive emotional functioning	Laborde et al. (2017); Tang et al. (2015)

These findings do provide growing evidence that breath-centered contemplative practices can influence measurable physiological and psychological processes relevant to well-being.

Psychophysiological Coherence and the Remaining Scientific Gap

Despite increasing research on yoga, meditation, and controlled breathing, important scientific questions still remain unresolved. Many studies examine isolated outcomes such as heart rate variability, emotional improvement, stress reduction, or neural activity independently. However, the human organism functions through continuous interaction among multiple systems, including respiration, autonomic regulation, neural oscillations, cognition, endocrine signalling, and emotional processing (McCraty & Shaffer, 2015).

The possibility that these systems may become dynamically coordinated during disciplined contemplative practice has not yet been fully explored through an integrated computational framework. While several findings support the role of breathing and meditation in influencing physiological and emotional states, fewer studies attempt to examine how multiple biological rhythms may interact together as part of a unified regulatory process.

This gap becomes especially important when considering the traditional yogic view of the human body as an interconnected system rather than a collection of isolated mechanisms. Although modern science and yogic philosophy use very different languages, both perspectives increasingly recognize the importance of balance, regulation, coordination, and internal stability for overall well-being.

Figure 2. The self-reinforcing psychophysiological regulation cycle of Kriya Yoga. Regulated breathing initiates a sequential cascade across autonomic, emotional, neural, and attentional systems; each stage progressively deepens subsequent regulation and returns to strengthen respiratory control, forming a closed adaptive loop that sustains psychophysiological coherence over time (McCraty & Shaffer, 2015; Tang et al., 2015).

Introduction of the Multi-Modal Phase Coherence Index (MPCI)

To address this gap, the present study introduces the Multi-Modal Phase Coherence Index (MPCI) as a simulation-based framework designed to explore cross-system physiological coordination (Bharadwaj & Bharadwaj, 2025). MPCI is proposed as a model for examining how regulated breathing and focused awareness may influence temporal alignment across respiratory, neural, autonomic, and endocrine-related rhythmic processes (Pikovsky et al. 2002).

Figure 3. Breath waveform regularity and emergent psychophysiological coherence. Irregular breathing produces weak cross-system coordination (MPCI = 0.3747), whereas deep yogic respiratory regulation (Prāṇāyāma) yields the highest adaptive coherence (MPCI = 0.3771) across 18,000 simulation steps.

The model is intended as a computational framework for investigating whether disciplined breath-centered practices may support greater psychophysiological coherence across interacting biological systems.

By integrating concepts from contemplative traditions with contemporary ideas from physiology, neuroscience, and systems regulation, the model attempts to provide a structured framework for exploring how ancient self-regulatory practices may relate to measurable processes associated with emotional balance, cognitive stability, and overall well-being.

Transition Towards the Present Study

The literature reviewed above suggests that ancient yogic science still hold important relevance in the context of modern mental and emotional health challenges. Contemporary evidence increasingly supports the view that controlled breathing, meditative awareness, and disciplined self-regulation can positively influence physiological balance, emotional resilience, and cognitive functioning. At the same time, important gaps remain in understanding how these effects emerge through coordinated interaction among multiple biological systems.

In response to this gap, the present study moves beyond philosophical interpretation alone and introduces a simulation-based analytical framework through the Multi-Modal Phase Coherence Index (MPCI), making it applicable even in consideration of modern science as well.

The following sections present the computational formulation of the (MPCI) and evaluate whether progressively regulated breathing enhances large-scale psychophysiological coherence across interacting physiological systems.

Methods

Foundation of the Present Study

The present study was designed to investigate whether regulated yogic breathing and meditative awareness may contribute to coordinated physiological activity across multiple interacting systems of the human body. Rather than treating respiration, neural activity, autonomic regulation, endocrine signalling, and emotional processing as isolated mechanisms, this work approaches them as dynamically interacting rhythmic systems capable of continuously influencing one another over time.

The conceptual basis of the study emerged from the union of two perspectives. The first originates from traditional yogic science, particularly Kriya Yoga, which describes the human organism as an interconnected field of breath, awareness, attention, and internal regulation. The second arises from modern neuroscience and systems physiology, where growing evidence suggests that respiration influences neural oscillations, autonomic balance, stress regulation, cognition, and emotional stability through complex bidirectional interactions.

From a systems-science perspective, the human body functions through continuous interaction among respiratory rhythms, neural activity, cardiovascular regulation, endocrine adaptation, attentional processes, and emotional regulation.

The present work therefore investigates whether disciplined breathing-centered regulation may support enhanced coordination across interacting biological systems under noisy and adaptive physiological conditions.

To explore this possibility, the study introduces the Multi-Modal Phase Coherence Index (MPCI) as a computational framework for examining emergent synchronization dynamics across multiple physiological oscillatory systems.

The Multi-Modal Phase Coherence Index (MPCI)

The Multi-Modal Phase Coherence Index (MPCI) was developed as a systems-level computational framework intended to quantify temporal coordination among interacting physiological oscillators.

In the context of the present study, “coherence” refers not to perfect synchronization, but to adaptive partial coordination among multiple rhythmic biological systems. Real physiological systems do not operate in a state of complete synchronization. Instead, healthy biological regulation typically emerges through metastable coordination, where systems transiently synchronize, desynchronize, and reorganize dynamically according to internal and external conditions.

The MPCI framework was therefore designed specifically to preserve biologically realistic variability while examining whether respiratory regulation could gradually recruit greater large-scale coordination across interacting systems.

The central hypothesis underlying the model was that slow and disciplined respiratory regulation may act as a hierarchical stabilizing influence capable of modulating broader psychophysiological dynamics through adaptive entrainment mechanisms. Because respiration interacts directly with autonomic function and indirectly with neural, emotional, and endocrine regulation. So, controlled breathing may influence system-wide coordination without forcing pathological global synchronization.

Rather than modelling the body as a uniformly synchronized structure, the MPCI architecture was intentionally constructed to preserve:

1. sparse physiological connectivity,
2. delayed inter-system interactions,
3. modular organization,
4. competitive desynchronization dynamics,
5. stochastic biological variability,
6. adaptive metastable behaviour.

This design was implemented to more closely resemble real biological regulatory systems.

Physiological Systems Included in the Model

To improve biological realism, following components have been taken care of. These included:

• Respiratory Regulatory Components
• Neural Oscillatory Components
• Autonomic Regulatory Components
• Endocrine-Regulatory Components
• Cognitive-Emotional Regulatory Components
• Integrative Regulatory Component

Mathematical Representation of Oscillatory Dynamics

Each physiological subsystem was represented as a nonlinear phase-evolving oscillator.

The temporal evolution of each oscillator was modelled using delayed stochastic phase dynamics:

(dθ_i)/dt = ω_i + ∑_j=1^N K_ij sin⁡(θ_j (t-τ_ij ) – θ_i(t)) + η_i(t) + A_i(t)                           (1)

where:

• θ_i represents the instantaneous phase of the i^th oscillator,
• ω_i represents its intrinsic oscillatory frequency,
• K_ij represents coupling strength between oscillators,
• τ_ij represents delayed physiological interaction times,
• η_i (t)represents stochastic biological noise,
• A_i(t) represents adaptive stabilization dynamics.

The inclusion of delayed interactions was important because biological systems do not communicate instantaneously. Neural, autonomic, endocrine, and respiratory systems interact across different physiological timescales (Kuramoto, 1984; Acebrón et al., 2005).

The model also incorporated heterogeneous stochastic perturbations because real biological systems are inherently noisy, adaptive, and continuously fluctuating rather than perfectly deterministic.

Unlike earlier globally synchronized architectures, coupling strengths within the final MPCI framework were intentionally constrained and sparse. Most oscillators interacted primarily with neighbouring functional systems rather than with the entire network simultaneously.

This prevented unrealistic synchronization collapse and preserved metastable adaptive dynamics.

Adaptive Respiratory Entrainment and Hierarchical Regulation

Within the MPCI framework, respiration functioned as the primary hierarchical regulatory driver.

Controlled breathing patterns associated with slow yogic respiration were simulated using adaptive low-frequency oscillatory inputs:

R(t)= Asin (2f_rt + ϕ) + Γ(t)                                    (2)

where:

• A denotes respiratory amplitude,
• f_r denotes respiratory frequency,
• ϕ denotes phase offset,
• Γ(t)  represents adaptive respiratory stabilization.

Unlike fixed sinusoidal forcing, the respiratory system dynamically adapted according to the evolving coherence state of the overall system.

This adaptive entrainment mechanism allowed respiratory regulation to influence broader system stability while preserving physiological flexibility and oscillatory diversity.

Three major respiratory conditions were examined:

Table 3. Adaptive respiratory regulation and system stability

Experimental Condition	Respiratory Characteristics	Physiological Interpretation
Irregular Breathing	Chaotic respiratory variability with weak stabilization	Dysregulated breathing state
Moderate Regulation	Semi-rhythmic controlled breathing	Partial regulatory stabilization
Deep Regulation	Slow highly regular breathing with strong adaptive stabilization	Disciplined meditative breathing

The purpose was to investigate whether increasing respiratory regularity could gradually recruit broader psychophysiological coordination under noisy nonlinear conditions.

Sparse Modular Coupling and Competitive Dynamics

To improve biological plausibility, the final MPCI architecture avoided dense all-to-all synchronization structures.

Instead, oscillators interacted through sparse modular coupling networks reflecting partial physiological connectivity.

The model incorporated:

1. local neural-neural coupling,
2. respiratory-autonomic regulation,
3. endocrine-autonomic adaptation,
4. attentional-emotional interaction,
5. weak long-range cross-system influence.

Competitive desynchronization dynamics were also introduced to prevent pathological global synchronization.

These competitive interactions allowed subsystems to transiently decouple and reorganize dynamically, thereby preserving adaptive physiological complexity.

This metastable behaviour was considered essential because healthy biological systems typically operate between excessive rigidity and complete disorder.

Computation of Multi-Modal Phase Coherence

To quantify collective system coordination, the study calculated the Multi-Modal Phase Coherence Index (MPCI):

MPCI(t) = 1/N ∑_k=1 ^N e^{iθ_k (t)}                            (3)

where:

• N represents the number of oscillatory subsystems,
•  e^{iθ_k (t)} represents phase-state encoding in the complex plane,
• MPCI(t) measures instantaneous global coherence.

The MPCI formulation was mathematically inspired by the classical Kuramoto order parameter commonly used in synchronization theory (Kuramoto, 1984).

The resulting MPCI values ranged between:

• 0: minimal cross-system coordination,
• 1: complete synchronization.

Importantly, within the present biological framework, extremely high coherence values were not interpreted as necessarily healthy or desirable. Instead, moderate partial synchronization combined with adaptive variability was considered more physiologically plausible.

Results

Emergence of Psychophysiological Coherence Under Regulated Breathing

The computed simulations were performed to investigate whether progressively regulated breathing could influence large-scale psychophysiological coordination across multiple interacting physiological systems. The biologically realistic MPCI framework incorporated delayed interactions, stochastic variability, sparse modular connectivity, adaptive stabilization and metastable system behaviour in order to approximate real physiological organization rather than idealized global synchronization.

Three respiratory conditions were examined within the simulations: irregular breathing, moderate respiratory regulation, and deep regulated breathing associated with slow meditative respiratory patterns. Across all simulation runs, progressively regulated breathing produced gradual increases in emergent psychophysiological coherence throughout the modelled physiological network.

The irregular breathing condition demonstrated the lowest overall coherence, indicating weaker coordination among interacting oscillatory systems. Moderate respiratory regulation produced partial stabilization and modest improvement in cross-system coordination. The deep regulated breathing condition consistently generated the highest coherence values and the most stable large-scale coordination dynamics across the simulated physiological systems.

Importantly, the simulations did not converge towards rigid synchronization. Instead, all physiologically stable states retained adaptive variability, transient desynchronization, and metastable oscillatory behaviour. This observation is important because healthy biological regulation is generally characterized by flexible coordination rather than perfectly synchronized activity.

The results therefore suggest that regulated breathing may act as a stabilizing physiological influence capable of improving large-scale coordination while preserving adaptive biological flexibility.

Comparative MPCI Outcomes Across Respiratory Conditions

The statistical analysis demonstrated measurable differences in MPCI values across the three respiratory conditions (Table-5). Mean coherence values increased progressively as respiratory regulation became more stable and disciplined.

Table 5. Comparative MPCI Outcomes Across Respiratory Conditions

Respiratory Condition	Mean MPCI	Standard Deviation	Minimum	Maximum
Irregular Breathing	0.3747	0.0155	0.3407	0.4086
Moderate Regulation	0.3760	0.0146	0.3410	0.4176
Deep Regulation	0.3771	0.0166	0.3392	0.4100

The deep regulated breathing condition generated the highest coherence values across the simulations, indicating stronger adaptive coordination throughout the modeled physiological network. Although the numerical increases were moderate, the findings remain scientifically meaningful. Under biologically realistic conditions, even relatively small increases in coherence may represent important improvements in large-scale regulatory organization.

Further, MPCI values under repeated Monte Carlo simulations demonstrated a gradual increase from irregular breathing to deep regulated breathing. Its indicates that progressively stabilized respiratory regulation may support improved large-scale psychophysiological coordination under biologically realistic noisy and adaptive conditions

The relatively stable standard deviation values across all conditions additionally suggest that the observed coherence improvements were not isolated simulation artifacts, but emerged consistently throughout repeated Monte Carlo simulations despite ongoing stochastic variability.

These findings show that progressively regulated breathing enhances large-scale psychophysiological coherence under biologically realistic conditions. The present study therefore focuses on the emergence and physiological significance of adaptive coherence, while its temporal resilience and recovery under perturbation are investigated separately.

Discussion

What the Results Really Mean

The present study set out to ask a simple but important question: can regulated breathing create a more balanced relationship among the body’s major internal rhythms? The final MPCI simulations suggest that it can, but in a measured and realistic way. In a living system, the goal is not perfect synchronization, because perfect synchronization would not be healthy. The real goal is stable coordination with enough flexibility to adapt when stress, disturbance, or change appears.

This is important because healthy physiological regulation depends on maintaining coordinated activity while remaining flexible enough to respond to changing internal and external conditions.

The findings therefore support that disciplined breathing may strengthen coordination among interacting physiological systems while preserving the adaptive variability that is characteristic of healthy biological function.

Why This Matters in Modern Life

This discussion is especially relevant because the modern problem is not that people lack intelligence or effort. The problem is that many people live in a constant state of stress. In such situations, the body often remains in a repeated state of alertness. Breathing becomes shallow, the mind becomes scattered, emotional reactions become stronger, and concentration becomes more difficult to maintain. Hence, the study suggests that Kriya Yoga, especially through controlled breathing, may offer a practical way to interrupt that cycle. Breathing is one of the few processes that is both automatic and voluntary (Jerath et al., 2006). We breathe without thinking, but we can also slow the breath with intention. That makes breath a natural bridge between body and mind. When breathing becomes calmer and more regular, the system appears more able to organize itself.

This is where the importance of Kriya Yoga becomes clear for common people. It does not require equipment, medicine, or a special setting. It can be practiced quietly, even in the middle of daily life. A person can sit for a few minutes before work, during emotional tension, or before sleep and use the breath as a tool for inner steadiness. That simplicity is one of its greatest strengths.

The Scientific Meaning of Kriya Yoga

The present findings do not claim that Kriya Yoga is a magical cure or that it replaces medical treatment. What it suggests is more meaningful and realistic. ‘Kriya Yoga’ may work as a form of self-regulation training.

From a scientific point of view, the value of Kriya Yoga lies in its ability to bring together several functions at once. Breath regulation can influence autonomic balance. Attention training can reduce mental scattering. Meditative awareness can improve emotional observation. Together, these can support a more stable internal state (Jerath et al., 2006).

That is why ancient yogic science remains relevant even today.

The present findings may be interpreted within the scope of a computational systems model. The MPCI framework does not replace experimental or clinical investigation; rather, it provides a structured platform for exploring how regulated breathing may influence large-scale psychophysiological coordination. Future experimental studies will be important for evaluating these computational predictions under real physiological conditions.

Conclusion

Long before the rise of modern neuroscience and physiology, ancient yogic traditions had already experienced the relationship between breath, awareness, emotional regulation, and human suffering. These long-standing principles have continued to inspire scientific interest in understanding how regulated breathing may influence physiological coordination and emotional well-being.

The present study attempted to scientifically explore this ancient principle through the proposed Multi-Modal Phase Coherence Index (MPCI), a computational framework designed to examine large-scale psychophysiological coordination under regulated breathing conditions. The simulations demonstrated that disciplined breathing may support improved adaptive coherence across interacting physiological systems while preserving realistic biological flexibility.

The findings suggest that ancient yogic science and modern systems physiology may complement rather than opposing one another. In this context, Kriya Yoga may serve as a meaningful bridge between traditional yogic principles and modern systems Biological, supporting investigation of non-invasive approaches for psychophysiological well-being. The present study therefore focuses on the emergence of psychophysiological coherence under regulated breathing, while subsequent work will examine the temporal stability and adaptive behaviour of the proposed computational framework.

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Abstract

This paper is the beginning of a series of small reviews on consciousness. It starts with a discussion of consciousness according to Hindu philosophy, specifically that related to cosmology and evolution. The views of three Indian stalwarts, namely, Sir Sarvepaali Radhakrishnan, Swami Vivekananda and Sri Aurobindo have been taken up. Radhakrishnan found the creation of the world an accident, but it was real, and the formation had four stages through matter, life, mind and spirit, the last two were linked to consciousness. Vivekananda opined that the creation of the universe was part of a continuous cyclic process, but no personal God was needed for that, rather, nature (prakriti) was good enough for that, yet, consciousness exists in all matter as part of the cosmic intelligence. Finally, Sri Aurobindo’s integral cosmology, with an eleven-tier consciousness structure, and provision of a theoretical framework that can unite science and spirituality through synthesis of knowledge between Western materialistic and Eastern metaphysical cosmologies, is discussed.

Key Words: Creation of the world, Samkhya cosmology, Integral cosmology, Science and spirituality, Western materialistic cosmology, Eastern metaphysical cosmology. Self-consciousness, Super consciousness.

Introduction

Since the day when the human being appeared in the universe, along with his whole lot of gross and fine belongings such as the body, mind, soul etc., consciousness has been a very special possession. It is so special that scores of scholars belonging to various subject-fields such as philosophy, sociology, psychology, biology, neuroscience, and many others throughout the world are studying consciousness till that time. In recent times the studies have been growing in depth, width and intensity. While, on one side,  wide range of philosophical concepts such as: panpsychism – that views consciousness as a fundamental feature of the physical universe [Seager 2020], cosmopsychism – that proposes the universe itself to possess a fundamental consciousness [Shani 2015], panspiritism – that supposes a fundamental consciousness, or, spirit that acts as the primary building block of the universe [Taylor 2020], are doing rounds; at the other side, scientists are trying to relate consciousness to brain mechanisms and their neural correlates [Koch 2018]. 

At this stage, mention may be made about Dr. S. K. Saksena of Department of Philosophy at Hindu College, Delhi, who, submitted a Ph.D. Thesis on the subject ‘Nature of consciousness in Hindu philosophy’ to the School of Oriental Studies, London, which was examined by none other than Sir Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, the then Spalding Professor of Eastern Religion and Ethics at the University of Oxford, and got approved. Though it happened in 1938, the thesis was published as a book with the same title in 1944. However, the main reason of this mention here is that Saksena has made the bold statement for the ‘need of a systematic study of the problem of consciousness in Hindu philosophy’ because, bold and vigorous thinking has gone in India for a long period of time starting from the Upanishad times extending to the end of the seventeenth century A. D.; the Hindu thinkers have thrashed out almost all possible concepts which they could have possibly evolved; they were daring enough to have carried their reasoning to the farthest logical conclusions [1944, 4]. 

The subject of consciousness is considered relevant for our journal, and hence, a series of short review articles by this author is planned. Following the idea of Saksena, Hindu philosophy has been chosen to be the starting point, and, since consciousness started with mankind, the issue of evolving cosmology is considered suitable to begin with. Thus, the present article aims to discuss the cosmology and evolution aspects related to consciousness, mostly by three Indian authors, namely, Sir Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, Swami Vivekananda, and Sri Aurobindo.  

Radhakrishnan On Evolution of The Universe

Sir Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan (1888-1975), an eminent philosopher, scholar, and statesman, the first Vice-President (1952-62) and the second President (1962-67) of independent India, has earned world-wide reputation for his scholarship, specifically in bridging the gap between Eastern and Western philosophies. Saradhi and Kotari have written a paper exactly fitting to the present need [2018]. The first citation of Radhakrishnan’s statements by them reads ‘the World’s creation is an accident and is not necessary for God.’ [7941]. This statement is followed by another that ‘it is real, not illusory’. His argument for such a combination of ‘accident’ and ‘real’ stand on the facts that, the first one accounts for why ‘this particular possibility has been realized,’ not any other, which is only possible by an accident; and the other that the creation is ‘real’ stands for the reason that, it occurred by an accident of the Absolute. ‘According to him the entire universe holds an expression of divine plan’. [7943].

Radhakrishnan perceives four stages, such as matter, life, mind (consciousness) and spirit (self-consciousness) in the evolution of the world. Matter is the first stage of a world where only physical events exist mostly in their own right without any relation to the perceiving mind, because mind has not been evolved then. Materials are mostly changed due to the varying combinations of the so-called atoms or the indivisible particles, and the conception of matter was bound up with such types of materialism and the conception of sensation. Matter was regarded as the cause and effect of sensation, though sensation is considered as passive through which the mind receives impressions from the external world. Life is the next stage of evolution that occurred from matter. Yet, the living organism as a whole does such things that the atomic system can never do. They register the results of their experience, and in a sense form a habit. The changes which they present in response to outward circumstances are retained and built into the organism. An atom can neither mend itself nor reproduce itself. [7946].

The mind is the next stage in the evolution of the matter–life continuum. According to Radhakrishnan the mind is real to the extent that it is the reflection of the divine; and he identifies mind with consciousness. According to him consciousness is of two varieties – animal consciousness and human consciousness; the former is of a lower level and the later is of higher level which can attain self-consciousness-state. He explains that the presence of consciousness makes a real distinction to the behavior. The activities directed by a conscious mind possess a unity and coordination. Radhakrishnan finds consciousness to be ‘something unique, new and distinctive, uniquely creative.’ [7947]. 

To a question whether this evolution of the universe is naturalistic or mechanistic – Radhakrishnan does not choose either, rather, he chooses spiritual. According to him, the world is full of an infinite series of interdependent conditioned events; and each existence finds its source and support in a supreme reality whose nature is spiritual. Further, it is the reflection of a spiritual universe which gives to it its life and significance. [7942].

The next stage of evolution is Self-Consciousness which results due to the presence of ‘spirit’ or, a ‘self’ in a human being. Radhakrishnan views this ‘spirit’ within a reflective human mind with intelligence and capacity of producing free inventions through which man has conquered nature. He also foresees that the human being should surpass the level of self-consciousness and reach to the heights of spiritual consciousness. Radhakrishnan perceives that the world is dynamic, not static; and he visualizes the play of ‘spirit’ in the world, it is this ‘spirit’ that progresses from matter to self-consciousness. To him, the world is a samsara that is a perpetual procession of events, so much so that ‘Indian thinkers, Hindu and Buddhists, viewed the world as a stream of happenings, a perpetual flow of events. Change is the essence of existence.’ ‘The different stages are not opposed as good and evil; it is an evolution from one stage to another. Then different stages are distinguished only within a unity. Body, mind and spirit constitute one whole man. The highest product of cosmic evolution, namely spirit, is the hidden principle at work and slowly discloses itself.’ Radhakrishnan observes that the goal of evolution is ananda, the spirit [7944-45].

Vivekananda’s Sankhya Cosmology

Swami Vivekananda (1863-1902), the chief disciple of the Indian mystic Ramakrishna Paramahansa, was a commanding spiritual leader, philosopher, author and modern thinker of India who made Hinduism dynamic and practical, and urged modern humanity to combine Western science and materialism with India’s spiritual culture for building a sustainable civilization. He became super-famous for his epoch-making address ‘My dear sisters and brothers of America’ at The Parliament of Religions, Art Institute of Chicago, on 11th September 1893, to a thunderous standing ovation of the audience. After his strong and appealing speech at the religious parliament, he stayed back in the USA till the end of 1896 to explain to the American people the essence of Vedantic philosophy. During his discourses, he covered systematically the Samkhya philosophy developed by rishi Kapila; then he narrated the way the creation was manifested from Prakriti according to the Samkhya theory, he terms it ‘Samkhya cosmology,’ and finally ends with the Advaita philosophy of Brahman. These discourses, specifically the ‘Samkhya cosmology,’ although in a different context, have been covered in minute detail in an earlier article in this journal [Paramguru 2024]; therefore, in the present article the same will not be repeated, only the specific issues pertaining to consciousness will be discussed. The readers are requested to refer to the said article for the purpose of getting detailed ideas about cosmology.

Unlike Radhakrishnan, Vivekananda does not say that the creation of the universe was an accident; rather, he says that according to Samkhya philosophy, the processes of evolution and involution of the universe is a continuous cyclic process. We know from modern astronomy, maybe just for the present evolution, that this earth and sun of ours are undergoing similar transitions (Vivekananda 2015, 16). Regarding the existence of God, Swamiji says that the father of all psychologists, Kapila, denies the existence of God as Creator. His idea is that a personal God is quite unnecessary; Prakriti is sufficient to work out all that is good’ (22). Here, a question arises, in absence of God, what is the cause of these gross as well as finer materials? Here, Swamiji says, ‘A very startling and curious answer is given by our psychologists, – self-consciousness’ (19). The Samkhyas believe that each existing material in the universe has some portion of consciousness as its material. Rather, it will be prudent to say that the first essential manifestation of prakriti in the cosmos is Mahat, we may call it universal intelligence; and consciousness (including all the grounds of consciousness, sub-consciousness, and super-consciousness) is only a part of this intelligence, which is universal. 

Although we may not discuss about Samkhya Cosmology in detail, we may site a couple of major points. The first point is that according to Swamiji, the human mind is ‘our little universe,’ (2); and ‘the whole of the universe is built upon the same plan as one single man, or one little being’ (24). This narration implies that both the human ‘body’ and ‘mind’ undergo similar manifestations like the gross bodies of our universe (25). The second point is that, according to the philosophers and metaphysicians of India, mind is but matter in a finer form, so also is the intellect that comes from the same Nature which is called Avyaktam, the undifferentiated (11). Also, behind the indriyas present the manas, the chitta in vriti, what might be called the vibratory state of the mind. Another thing also accompanies all the acts of the mind – called egoism, the ahamkara, which is termed as the self-consciousness, and behind that is what is called Mahat, the intelligence, the highest form of Nature’s existence. Behind the intellect is the true Self of man, the Purusha, the pure, the perfect. It may also be called the soul, or the Atman. Further, according to Samkhya philosophy, everything in nature, including mind, intelligence, and will, all its products, Prakriti itself, are jada (insentient). But the very basis of sentiency lies in the Purusha, and ‘in this world of insentiency Purusha alone is sentient’ (44). That is to say, this Purusha, taking him in the universal sense, is the impersonal God of the universe; and taking him in the human sense, is the small God of the human being. Actually, this Purusha, in Samkhya philosophy, is perceived as the so-called God, or just the ‘consciousness.’

The Integral Cosmology of Sri Aurobindo

Sri Aurobindo, the full name Aurobindo Ghosh (1872-1950), was famously known for his dual activities, the first as an Indian nationalist fighting against the British colonial rule, and then as a profound spiritual philosopher, poet and yogi who created ‘integral yoga’. In fact, his term ‘integral yoga’ has been visualized as ‘integral cosmology,’ as used in the above heading, and also as ‘integral Vedanta’ by the Italian born physicist, with interests in foundations of physics, metaphysics and philosophy of mind, Marco Masi (1965-) [2023]. In Masi’s view, Aurobindo’s ‘notion of evolutionary progress, from the Absolute to the universal, or cosmic consciousness and the planes and parts of being’ which are ‘the different levels of consciousness in its individuated and cosmic dimension’ ‘transcends beyond a simple mind, body, and soul ontology.’ Further, he visualizes presence of ‘a ‘concentric system’ of inner, outer and inmost identities’ along with ‘the ‘psychic being’ – the notion of an evolutionary soul’ – and ‘the diverse levels of cognition beyond mind, such as over-mind, cosmic-mind and super-mind’ in Aurobindo’s integral vision, all of which have ‘vast implications leading to an extended concept of evolution’ [515]. 

Aurobindo’s evolutionary spiritual vision is a concept of the existence of a spiritual evolution and progress in Nature. He conceives an integral structure of Being, then through ‘cellular yoga’ he brings in the transmutation of the material body into the image of the Spirit. He uses the traditional Indian Upanishad-based yoga philosophy which describes the being as ‘vehicles’, ‘bodies’, or, ‘sheets of consciousness’, called ‘koshas’ that covers the soul layer by layer like the layers in an onion. Aurobindo named these ‘koshas’ as Anandamaya kosha (Satcitananda), Vijnanamaya kosha (Supermind), Manomaya kosha (Mental), Pranamaya kosha (Vital), and Annamaya kosha (Physical). He calls the first two as ‘higher hemisphere’ and the lower three as ‘lower hemisphere’. He also says that there are still lower ranges of consciousness, such as: subconscience, inconscience, and nescience to which we are insensible; and there is also a higher range such as superconscience which is unseizable to us. He has developed his integral yoga system around this five-kosha-structure of classical yoga with further refinement [518].  

Aurobindo’s concept of the ‘concentric system’ of Being, Soul and Nature consists of ‘the outer being’, which is dominated by the partially controlled mental and emotional impulses and reactive patterns, may be said as the gross physical body; ‘the inner being’, termed by him as ‘subliminal being’, or simply ‘subliminal’, which is the inner spiritual consciousness and considered closer to the divine; and ‘the inmost being’, which is our true being and personality in us, where our true evolutionary soul (he terms it ‘psychic being’ and Indian Upanishad terms it ‘Chaitya purusha’) resides. Like in Samkhya philosophy, Aurobindo’s integral yoga also distinguishes between Soul (Purusha) and Nature (Prakriti, or the cosmic universal nature). This triple system of the outer, inner and inmost beings is called the ‘concentric system of being’ and it represents the metaphysical structure of the individuated being inside the larger cosmic context which is nicely summarized by Masi in a table which is reproduced here [2023, 522-523].

In this hierarchy of metaphysical structure of integral yoga, as described in Table 1, the psychological existence of any ordinary human being is a mixture, an interdependent cross-interaction of all these beings [523].

Finally, Masi presents a diagram which is complementary to Table 1, yet displays the full spectrum of the vertical system of consciousness in Aurobindo’s cosmology [2023, 531]. The same diagram is also placed below. It may be noted that it is not just a structure of consciousness of an individual human being, but it is a cosmology of consciousness applicable to the universal planes [531]. Here, another point is also to be 

Table 1. The concentric system of being according to Sri Aurobindo [Masi 2023, 523].       

Prakriti                                                                                                                               Purusha

Outer being                                                       Inner (Subliminal) being                  Inmost being

Outer mental (Sense – and physical mind     Inner mental (reason, intellect)      Psychic being + emotional or vital mind)                                                                                    (Chaitya Purusha) —————————————————————————————————- Outer vital (lower vital)                                  Inner vital (higher vital) —————————————————————————————————- Outer physical (gross body)                           Inner physical (subtle physical)

Diagram 1. The vertical system of the planes and parts of being [Masi 2023, 531].

Consciousness (Impersonal)                                                                           (Personal)

Satcitananda                             (Top Six):                                                 (Top two): Jibatman/ Supermind                                                                                              Cosmic mind —————–                                                                                          ——————————– Overmind                           Higher Hemisphere Intuition Illumined mind Hogher mind ———————-              ——————————– Mind                                       (Bottom Five): Vital Subconscient                          Lower Hemisphere Inconscient Nescient/Material

noted that each of the mind, overmind, Supermind, the vital plane do not evolve, each is ever-present realities on their own, each of them only emerge in time on the physical plane; and it is their progressive emergence in and through matter that we call ‘evolution’ [533]. 

Aurobindo has integrated all the previous forms of ontologies such as ‘material monism’, ‘rationalistic and materialistic reductionist naturalism’, ‘Vedantic non-dual tradition’, ‘Vedic cosmology’ etc., but extends it to an integral multidimensional cosmology articulated by the universal planes and parts and augmented by an evolutionary vision [538]. At the end, Masi’s concluding remark may be stated: ‘Even though one requires a fair amount of effort to get acquainted with the richness and complexity of Aurobindo’s cosmology, I believe it to be the most promising theoretical framework that can accommodate science and spirituality, in a unique synthesis of knowledge between Western and Eastern materialistic and metaphysical cosmologies [550].

Conclusions

This paper described consciousness according to Hindu philosophy, specifically that related to cosmology and evolution through the views of three Indian scholars, namely, Sir Sarvepaali Radhakrishnan, Swami Vivekananda and Sri Aurobindo. Though Radhakrishnan viewed the creation of the world as an accident, yet, he found it to be real, and its formation was in four stages of matter, life, mind and spirit. The last two stages that are mind and spirit were concerned with consciousness. Vivekananda said that the creation of the world was part of a continuous cyclic process, but no personal God was needed for that, rather, nature (prakriti) is good enough for the purpose. The existence of consciousness in all matter as part of the cosmic intelligence was universal. Finally, Sri Aurobindo’s integral cosmology having an eleven-tier consciousness structure was discussed. This provides a theoretical framework that can unite science and spirituality through synthesis of knowledge between Western materialistic and Eastern metaphysical cosmologies.

References

1. Koch, Christof., 2018. “What is consciousness?” Nature 557: S8-S12. 

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   4. Saradhi, Srungarapu and Kotari, Usha Rani., 2018. “Dr. S. Radhakrishnan views on religious philosophy.” Scholarly Research Journal for Humanity Science & English Language 26(6) (Feb-Mar): 7941-7950.
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1. Sankhya, Vedanta and other systems of thought. Ed. Swami Saradananda. Second edition, Ramkrishna Math, Publisher: Brahmachari Kapila, Calcutta: Udbodhan Office.
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Abstract

Ancient India was a great country with one of the great ancient civilisations. When the entire world was in complete darkness India was shining as a golden sparrow in the horizon of knowledge. However, centuries of foreign invasion and political rule over the land the present generation have mostly lost contact of its rich heritage. The purpose of a series of articles being presented here is to remind and bring to the forefront the ancient glory of this vast nation. In a previous article we have covered ancient India’s contribution to the field of Mathematics and Physics. Here in this article, we are presenting the same in the field of Astronomy, Chemistry and Metallurgy.

Astronomy

Ancient India’s contributions to the field of astronomy are well known and quite well documented. Indian astronomy has a long history stretching from pre-historic Vedic period to modern times. Some of the earliest roots of Indian astronomy can even be dated to the period of Indus Valley civilization or earlier. Astronomy like Mathematics had an important part in its Vedic religious tradition to meet the requirement of appropriate spatio-temporal calculations based on astronomical observations for the correct performance of religious rites. Thus, the Shulva Sutras, the texts dedicated to altar construction; discusses advanced mathematics and basic astronomy. The oldest known text Vedanga Jyotisha, written by Lagadha (1400-1200 BCE) details several astronomical attributes generally applied for timing social and religious events. It includes details of astronomical calculation based on observation of the Sun, Moon and the Nakshyatras (constellations) according to the rules established for empirical observations. Rig Vedic rishis had the knowledge about the constellations (star-groups) called Nakshyatras which are 27 (or 28) in numbers and the moon gets conjoined with one each of these star-groups each night. The fact that the 28th nakshyatra ‘Abhijit’ is mentioned infrequently means that Vedic Rishis knew that the sidereal month was between 27 and 28 days. In other words, the approximate Solar year of 360 days was divided into 12 lunar months of 27 days (according to the Vedic text Taittiriya Samhita 4.4.10.1-3) or 28 days (according to Atharva Veda 19.7.1). Time was reckoned by the position marked off in the constellations on the ecliptic in which the Moon rises daily in the course of one lunation (the period from new Moon to new Moon) and the Sun rises in the course of one year. Each of these constellations (nakshyatras) measure an arc of 13°20′ of the ecliptic circle. The positions of the Moon were directly observable and those of the Sun inferred from Moon’s position at full Moon, when the Sun is on the opposite side of the Moon. The position of the Sun at midnight was calculated from the nakshyatra that culminated on the meridian at that time, the Sun then being in opposition to that nakshyatra. Each solar year was also divided into twelve synodic months of 29 or 30 days. With the knowledge that a five-year yuga contained 1830 sidereal days, the resulting discrepancy was resolved by the intercalation of a leap month called Adhimasa to make the beginning of the Sun’s ayanaansa fall in the correct months. According to Vedanga Jyotisha, the Sun and the Moon conjoined with Vashava (the nakshyatra presently known by the name Dhanistha) in the month of Magha proceed Northwards (uttarayana) and at the middle of Sarpa (Aslesa) in the month of Sravana, they proceed southwards (Dakshinayana). The beginning of a yuga is counted from the beginning of uttarayana in the shuklapakshya of Magha, when the Moon and the Sun are conjoined with the nakshyatra Dhanistha. Although the exact rule of intercalation for Adhimasa had not been made explicit in Vedanga Jyotisha, the relation of a yuga of 5 solar years to 62 synodic months and 1830 sidereal days was well known. Also, well known at that time about the twelve signs of the zodiac (rasi) along with the twenty-seven constellations (nakshyatras) and seven planets. The first important study and analysis of Indian Astronomy was done by Jean sylvain Bailly (1736-1793), who in his book “Traits de Astronomic Indianne et Orientale” published in 1787 had commented that the Indian Astronomical observations documented in their observational tables were based on quite accurate observations, some of which were made as early as 4300 BC. The great mathematician and astronomer Laplace who having discovered the inequality in the motion of Jupiter and Saturn, wrote in 1787: “I find by my theory, that at the Indian epoch of 3101 BC, the apparent and annual mean motion of Saturn was 12º 13 14 and the Indian tables make it 12º 13 14. In like manner, 1 find the annual and apparent mean motion of Jupiter at that epoch was 30° 20 42° precisely as in Indian astronomy.” (As quoted in an article by J. Burgess under the title ‘Notes on Hindu Astronomy and the History of our knowledge of it’ in J. Royal Asiatic Society. 177-761,1893).

Indian astronomy flowered in the 5th to 6th century CE, with Aryabhyatta (476-550 CE), whose treatise Aryabhattiya represented the pinnacle of astronomical knowledge at that time. Its contents were preserved to some extent in the works of Varahamihira (550 CE), Bhaskara I (129 CE) Brahmagupta (598-668 CE) and others. Aryabhatta explicitly mentioned in his work that Earth rotates about its own axis, thereby causing what appears to be an apparent westward motion of the stars. He suggested further that the Earth was spherical in shape with a circumference of 24835 miles (39,967 km) which works out to give the radius of earth as R = 6362 km. In fact, now it is well known from measurement by orbiting spacecraft that the earth is almost, but not quite, a perfect sphere having its equatorial radius as 6378 km and its polar radius is 6357 km, which are not far too different from Aryabhatta’s estimate. Apart from his significant contributions to trigonometry, arithmetic and algebra that he developed for his accurate mathematical calculations of astronomical events like solar eclipse and lunar eclipse; he also mentioned that the cause behind the shining of the moon is the reflected sunlight. Following Aryabhatta’s principles and methodologies, his followers mostly from South India carried forward his works to further heights. Some of these works are worth mentioning here as follows.

Brahmagupta (598-668 CE), well known for his contributions of mathematics and astronomy wrote Brahmasphuta Siddhanta in 628 CE, which had been translated into Arabic in 771 CE providing a major impact on Islamic mathematics and astronomy subsequently. Brahmagupta reinforced Aryabhatta’s idea of a day to begin from the midnight of the previous day. He also calculated the instantaneous motion of planets to give the correct equation for parallax and also provided valuable information relating to the computation of eclipses. He also theorized that all bodies with mass are attracted towards earth. Varahamihir (505 CE), who studied Indian Astronomy along with several other contemporary knowledge systems, had mentioned and compiled in his ‘Pancha-Siddhantika’; one of the most ancient Sanskrit treatises on Indian astronomy; Surya Siddhanta. Surya Siddhanta describes rules to calculate the motions of various planets and the Moon relative to various constellations and calculates the orbits of various astronomical bodies. The authorship of this ancient text is not known exactly. According to al-Biruni, the 11th century Persian Scholar, the second verse of the first chapter of Surya Siddhanta attributes the authorship to Mayasura, father of ‘Mandodari’ and father-in-law of Ravana around two million years ago at the end of the first golden age of Hindu mythology, the Satya Yuga. As per the legend, the contents were dictated to Mayasura through someone named ‘Lata’ an emissary of the Sun-God. However, the text is known from a 15th century palm-leaf manuscript and several newer manuscripts. It was recomposed or revised in 500 CE from an earlier text by this name. The text believed in the geocentric model with earth as the stationary globe around which the sun, moon along with other planets orbit. It calculates earths’ diameter to be 8000 miles (compared to its modern value 7928 miles), the diameter of moon as 2400 miles (actual value 2160 miles) and the distance between the moon and the earth to be 258000 miles (now known to vary between 221,500 to 252,700 miles). Surya Siddhanta represented a functional system that made reasonably accurate predictions. The text was translated into Arabic and had its impact on medieval Islamic astronomy.

Bhaskara-I in 269 CE authored the astronomical texts like Mahabhaskariya, Laghubhaskariya and Aryabhattiyabhasya as a commentary on Aryabhatta’s ‘Aryabhattiya’. In these treatises, Bhaskara-I discussed the planetary longitudes, heliacal rising and setting of planets, conjunctions among planets and stars, solar and lunar eclipses and the phases of the moon.

Following the works of Aryabhatta, Brahmagupta, and Bhaskara-I; Lalla in 8th century CE authored ‘Sisyadhivruddhida, consisting two parts Grahadhyaya and Goladhyaya. Grahadhyaya deals with planetary calculations, determination of the mean and true planets, rising and setting of planets, eclipses, planetary and astral conjunctions etc. Goladhyaya deals with graphical representation of planetary motion, astronomical instruments used and also emphasizes on corrections to and rejection as well of the flawed principles. His works were followed by later astronomers like Bhaskara-II (1114 CE) who was heading the astronomical observatory in Ujjain at that time. He authored ‘Siddhanta Siromani’ and reported on his observation of planetary positions, conjunctions, eclipses as well as the astronomical equipment used in his observation.

Notable amongst many other astronomers of the fifteenth century was Nilakantha Somyaji (1544 CE) of the Kerala School of astronomy and mathematics who is worth mentioning here. In his ‘Tantrasangraha’, he revised Aryabhatta’s model for planets Mercury and Venus. His equation of the center for these planets remained the most accurate ones, until the time of Johannes Kepler in the 17th century. He also authored an Aryabhattiyabhasya, a commentary on Aryabhatta’s Aryabhattiya, where he developed his own computational system based on a partially heliocentric planetary model in which Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn orbit the Sun and Sun along with these orbiting planets in turn orbits the Earth. This was similar to the model proposed by Tycho-Brahe in the late 16th century, Nilakantha’s system, however, was mathematically more efficient than the Tychonic system due to its correct equation of the center and longitudinal motion of Mercury and Venus. Most astronomers of Kerala School of Astronomy who followed him accepted his planetary model. In this tradition, with a long chain of astronomers of India, Samanta Chandrasekhar (1835-1904) was the last link during a period spanning over a millennium and half. He was probably the last naked eye astronomer of Siddhantic tradition, popularly known as Pathani Samanta in Orissa. He worked in astronomy following traditional methods, completely unaware of the telescope, and using handy tools like bamboo poles and sticks, all fabricated by himself. He recorded his own study and observations in an invaluable classic treatise ‘Siddhanta Darpana’ in 1895. Siddhanta Darpan has been composed in fine metrical Sanskrit verses. It contains many original contributions in observation, calculation, instrumentation as well as theory and the models demonstrating appreciable improvement over the earlier classics like Surya Siddhanta and Siddhanta Siromani. The results of his observations are often comparable with modern data and his predictions in positional astronomy are in fair agreement with actual occurrence of astronomical events even today. (P.C. Nayak and L. Satpathy in, Bulletin of Astronomical Soc. India (1998), 26,33-49).

This discussion finally brings us to highlight some of the ancient Indian devices used for astronomical observations. One such common device was gnomon known as sanku, in which the shadow of a vertical rod on a horizontal plane was observed and measured to ascertain the cardinal direction, the latitude of the observation points and the observation time. This device finds mention in the works of Varahamihira, Aryabhatta, Bhaskara and Brahmagupta etc. Similarly, the Yasti-Yantra, a cross-staff, was used by the time of Bhaskara-II. This device could vary from a simple stick to V-shaped staffs designed specifically to determine angles with the help of calibrated scale. The gola-yantra, the Indian armillary sphere finds mention in the works of Aryabhatta. Gola-dipika, a detailed treatise composed by Paramesvara between 1380 and 1460 CE, deals with globes and armillary spheres. The Indian armillary spheres were based on equatorial coordinates whereas the Greek armillary spheres used elliptical coordinates. Indian armillary spheres also had an elliptical hoop. Bhaskara-II in the 12th Century invented the Phalaka-yantra to determine time from the Sun’s altitude. This consisted of a rectangular board with a pin and an index arm. Kapala-yantra was an equatorial Sun-dial instrument used to determine Sun’s azimuth. Padmanava invented a nocturnal polar rotation instrument consisting of a rectangular board with a slit and a set of pointers with concentric graduated circles. Time and other astronomical quantities could be calculated by adjusting the slit to the directions of Alpha and Beta Ursa Minor. Its backside was made as a quadrant with a plumb and an index arm. Thirty parallel lines were drawn inside the quadrant and trigonometrical calculations were done graphically after determining the Sun’s altitude with the help of the plumb whereas time was calculated graphically with the help of the index arm.

There are several such instruments still surviving in this epoch at the observatories built by Maharaja of Jaipur, Sawal Jai Singh (1688-1743 CE) in the beginning eighteenth century. Except for the observatory in Mathura; rest of them in Delhi, Jaipur, Ujjain and Banaras are still extant today. Notable amongst all these instruments based on Indian and Islamic astronomy is the Samrat-yantra which is a huge Sundial consisting of a triangular gnomon wall and a pair of quadrants towards the east and west of the gnomon wall. The quadrants had been graduated to record time. 

Chemistry & Metallurgy 

Development in Chemical Science in ancient India was not limited to an abstract level like Physics, but found in a variety of practical activities. Chemical techniques developed in ancient India can be traced back all the way to Indus Valley or Harappan civilization (3rd millennium BCE). According to Acharya Prafulla Chandra Ray (1861-1944), the eminent Indian Chemist and a historian of Chemistry, development of chemical techniques can be recognized to have taken place in five stages (i) the pre-Vedic period up to 1500 BCE (ii) the Vedic and Ayurvedic period up to 700 CE (iii) transitional period from 700 CE to 100 CE (iv) the Tantric period from 700 CE to 1300 CE and finally (v) the Iatro chemical period from 1300 CE to 1600 CE. However, we would focus our attention more on the chemical techniques of the pre-Vedic and Vedic period only.

Pre-Vedic Indians were acquainted with the art of baked and burnt clay pottery and dyeing them with two or more colours. This needed the construction of open and closed kilns. These potteries consisted of mainly wheel made wares in various shapes, sizes and colour out of the well-levigated alluvium of Indus. The colour and other characteristics of the potteries depended upon the composition of the clay and techniques of firing under either oxidizing or reducing conditions. The Harppan Indians also experimented with various mortars and cements made of burnt limestone, gypsum and mica among other things. Finely crushed quartz when burnt produced faience, a synthetic material which when coated with silica (Perhaps fused with Soda) with addition of copper oxide; it produced a shiny turquoise glaze. Faience was then shaped into various ornaments and figurines. Addition of iron oxide or manganese oxide etc. resulted in different colours. The Harappan artisans must have had the knowledge of processing and the proportions of several naturally occurring chemical substances as mentioned above. The craftsmen of that period were also highly skilled in the art of shaping and polishing precious and semi-precious stones in preparing ornamental beads.

During the period earlier than 1500 BCE, as has been mentioned in Rig Veda, ancient Indians knew the process of fermentation to prepare various fermented drinks. Soma juice from the stems of soma plant was highly extolled and was considered as a divine drink. Madhu and Suraa brewed from barley grain also find mention in Rig Veda. Curd, the fermented milk was an important food item. Woolen cloths and garments were often dyed red, purple or brown with certain natural vegetable colouring matters. Vedic period is also associated with a type of pottery now known as ‘Painted grey ware’. This ceramic is a thin gray deluxe ware, mostly wheel-made, well burnt, glossy and richly painted. In the eastern part of Gangetic planes earthen black polished wares were also found along with plenty of iron objects. Glass beads dating back to the 10th century BC have been discovered. Evidences for notable feat of excellence of flourishing glass industry at that epoch had been found by archaeologists at more than 30 sites which include Taxila in present Pakistan, Hastinapur and Kopia in Uttar Pradesh, Nalanda in Bihar, Ujjain in Madhya Pradesh, Brahmagiri in Karnataka etc. The glass objects include coloured beads, glass vessels in green and blue colours, bangles, ear-reels, eye-beads etc. The glass makers of this period were no doubt very skilful in controlling the temperature of fusion, moulding, annealing, blotching and gold foiling. The chemical composition of a typical glass specimen from Kopia site in Uttar Pradesh was found as follows. It had silica 66.6%, alumina 7%, alkalis (Na₂O) 21.7%, ferric Oxide 1.6%, lime 2.4%, manganese oxide 0.07% and traces of titania and magnesia. Koutilya’s Artha Shastra of 3rd or 4th century BC, has a lot of information on prevailing chemical practices. Apart from mines and minerals, one can find detailed discussions on precious stones like pearl, ruby, beryl etc. as well as of the preparation methods for the fermented juices (sugarcane, jaggery, honey, jambo, jackfruit, mango etc.) and oil extractions. Varahamihira’s Brihat Samhita of 6th century CE mentions detailed information on the preparation of various perfumes and cosmetics along with the recipes for preparation of a glutinous material to be applied on the roofs and walls of buildings. Charaka Samhita and Sushruta Samhita give account of several minerals, metals, metallic compounds, salts and fermented beverages. There are also discussions on preparation of various alkalis (khara) in three different forms such as mild (mridu), caustic (teekshna and average (madhyama). They were prepared from 25 different plants described there. Hot alkaline solutions were used to treat thin metal sheets like iron, gold or silver before incorporating them into drugs. Caustic alkalis were also used for treating surgical instruments. Will Durant has written in his ‘The story of civilization our ‘Oriental Heritage’ referring to India – “as the most skilled of the nations in such chemical industries as dyeing, tanning, soap making, glass and cement…. By the sixth century the Hindus were far ahead of Europe in industrial chemistry. They were masters of calcinations, distillation, sublimation, steaming, fixation, the production of light without heat, the mixing of anesthetic and soporitic powders, preparation of metallic salts, compounds and alloys….”.

Metallurgy was intimately linked with the developments in chemistry and industrial chemistry in India. The commonly used metals in antiquity include gold, silver, copper, tin, lead, zinc, mercury and iron. Early gold and silver ornaments from the Indian subcontinent have been found from the Indus valley sites of Mohenjodaro dating to a period of 3000 BC, which are on display in the National Museum; New Delhi. India had the deepest ancient gold mines in the Maski region of Karnataka during the 1st millennium BC. Besides this antiquity, gold was usually collected by panning alluvial sands from placer deposits. According to the Greek tales of Herodotus, gold-digging-ants in India (referring to marmots, a type of rodent found in Afghanistan) used to dig up river sand which were then panned for gold by the nearby inhabitants. In fact, such a tale can be corroborated by literary evidence in the mention of ant’s gold in epic Mahabharata. The interesting technique of granulation of gold (using surface tension of melted gold filings, tiny spherical granules of gold could be produced) in making jewellery was developed in several parts of the world around 600 BC. However, this technique was in practice in India in the late 1st millennium BC to the early Christian era. In fact, the mining and extensive use of gold, silver and copper was undertaken in the Indus valley in the third century BC. In the Vedic period extensive use was made of copper, bronze and brass for household utensils, weapons and images of worship. The image of Nataraja the God of Dance is made of five metals (Pancha-Dhatu). This technology of mixing two or more metals and producing superior alloys was well known to ancient Indians. Patanjali’s Lohasastra of second century B.C. gives elaborate description of many chemical and metallurgical processes especially the preparation of metallic salts, alloys, amalgams and the extraction and purification and assaying of metals. The discovery of aqua-regia (a mixture of nitric and hydrochloric acid to dissolve gold and platinum) is ascribed to Patanjali. Numerous specimens of weapons made of iron have been excavated, probably belonging to the 4th century BC. Iron clamps, iron stags found at Bodhagaya temple point to the knowledge of processing and manufacturing iron as early as the third century B.C. It was especially well established in the South Indian megalithic cultures of this period.

South India was a region that was renowned for metallurgy and metal works in the old days. Fine steel wires for the use as strings in musical instruments were being produced in Karnataka when the western world was using animal gut for the same purpose. Kerala was well known for its large iron smelting furnaces as well as for the specialty in making metal mirrors of Aranmula. High quality steel from Tamilnadu has been exported to all over the world since Roman times. The Konasamudram region in Andhra Pradesh was famous for producing the world renowned Wootz Steel. Wootz is the English substitute for ‘Ukku’ in Kannada and Telugu, meaning steel. Studies on Wootz indicate that it was an ultra-high carbon steel with about 1-2% carbon and was believed to have been used to fashion the Damascus sword with blades having watery patterns whose wavy streaks always glisten like a pond on whose surface wind is gliding. These swords were the best swords in the ancient world, the strongest and sharpest, sharper even than the Japanese Katans. Romans, Greeks, Arabs, Persians, Turks and Chinese imported it. Wootz steel is also known as Damascus steel which is derived from the Arabic ‘Damas’ meaning water, because of the watery designs on the blade. Ktesias at the court of Persia in 5th century BC mentions two swords made of Indian steel which the Persian King presented him.

Since iron has a high melting point of around 1550°C, it was commonly produced in the olden days by reducing the one to metal in solid state to produce bloomery iron which was then wrought to give low carbon (0.1% to 0.2% carbon) wrought iron. However, Wootz steel was produced in India in a clever way in lowering the melting point of iron. The lower the melting point, the more carbon got absorbed and high carbon steel was produced. This was done by carburizing chips of wrought iron in a closed crucible process. Wrought iron, wood and carbonaceous matter were placed in a crucible and heated in a current of hot air till the iron became red hot and plastic. It was then allowed to cool very slowly (in about 24 hrs.) until it absorbed a fixed amount (generally 1.2 to 1.8 percent) of carbon. When it is forged into a blade, the carbides in the steel form the visible pattern on the surface. In the early 1800 CE, Europeans tried their hand at reproducing Wootz on an industrial scale. Michael Faraday, the great experimenter and himself the son of a blacksmith, tried to duplicate the steel by alloying iron with a variety of metallic additions including Noble metals but failed. His failure marked the beginning of alloy steel making in the world. Wootz had been a prime motivating force in the development of metallurgical science and study of micro structures. Although iron and steel had been used for thousands of years; the role of carbon in steel as the dominant element was understood only in 1774 by Tobern Bergman in unravelling the mysteries of Wootz. The textured Damascus steel was one of the earliest materials to be examined by electron microscope in 2006, to show that it contains large amounts of carbon nanotubes. Referring to this the Nobel laureate Robert F. Curl said that carbon nanotechnology was much older than carbon nanoscience and hence nanotechnology is not new to India, when it is of raging interest to scientists world over now. But Indians had used nano materials long since unwittingly in making Damascus steel swords which were stronger and sharper.

Traditional Indian iron and steel are known to have some very special properties such as resistance to corrosion. This is substantiated by the 1600 yr old twenty-four feet high iron pillar next to the Qutub Minar in Delhi. This iron pillar belonging to the fourth fifth century CE believed to have been erected during Chandragupta Maurya’s reign, is a metallurgical wonder. This huge wrought iron pillar, 24 feet in height, 16.4 inches in diameter at the bottom, and 6 1⁄2 tons in weight has stood exposed to tropical Sun and rain for more than fifteen hundred years without showing any sign of rusting or corrosion. Evidence shows that this pillar was once a Garuda Stambha from a Vishnu temple which was plundered by Islamic invaders securing the pillar as a trophy in the Quwwat al-Islam mosque in Delhi. Made of pure iron, which even today can be produced only in small quantities by electrolysis. The pillar is believed to have been made by forging together a series of disc-shaped iron blooms. Apart from its dimensions; absence of corrosion must have its link to the high purity of wrought iron and its composition with phosphorus content and the distribution of slag. Even with today’s advances, only few foundries in the world could make this piece with none able to keep it rust free. The pillar stands today as a mute testimony to the highly advanced scientific knowledge and skill that was known and mastered by ancient Indian ironsmiths. According to Percy Brown, this pillar is a remarkable tribute to the genius and manipulative dexterity of Indian workers. The huge iron girders used in roofing the porch of temples at Puri and Konark, the ornamental gates of Somanath and the 24 feet wrought iron gun at Nurvar are also such monuments bearing eloquent testimony to the marvellous metallurgical skill attained by the ancient Indians.

          Besides the production of wootz steel and corrosion free iron; another metallurgical marvel of ancient India is the extraction of Zinc. Zinc is better known as a constituent of brass than a metal in its own right. Brass having 10 percent zinc glitters like gold. The earliest brass objects in India have been found from the excavation sites at Taxila (44 BC). These brass objects had more than 35 percent zinc; this high content of zinc, according to expert metallurgists, could be put in only by direct fusion of metallic zinc and copper. Zinc smelting compared to other metals used in antiquity is very difficult, since at normal pressure it boils and volatilizes at 913°C, while to extract zinc from its oxide ore, it must be heated to about 1200°C in a furnace. As a result, it would form as a vapor in the furnace which would immediately get reoxidised and hence lost. Hence metallic zinc is seldom reported in antiquity elsewhere in the world. However, in India there is unique evidence for extensive and semi-industrial production of metallic zinc at Zawar area of Rajasthan. The Zawar process consisted of heating zinc oxide ore in an atmosphere of carbon monoxide in clay retorts arranged upside down to collect zinc vapor in a cooler chamber placed vertically beneath the retort. Such an ingenious downward distillation method was devised where the zinc vapor was formed after smelting zinc ore using specifically designed retorts with condensers and furnaces, so that the smelted zinc vapor could be drastically cooled down to get a melt that could solidify to zinc metal. This process has been described in Rasaratnakara, the alchemical text written by Nagarjuna in the medieval period. In Europe, the production of metallic zinc was virtually unknown and as late as 1735, professional chemists in Europe believed that zinc could not be reduced to metal except in the presence of copper. William champion first established commercial zinc smelting in Bristol in 1740. Interestingly enough it has been pointed out that Champion’s process of downward distillation bears a strong resemblance to the Zawar process, which would have been known to the British during the forays of the East India Company.

Mercury is also a volatile metal which is easily produced by heating Cinnabar followed by downward distillation of mercury vapor. The earliest literary references to the use of mercury distillation comes from Artha Shastra of Kautilya from the late 1st millennium BC onwards. In India; Vermillion or Cinnabar which is mercuric sulphide has had great ritual significance in making red bindi or dot on the forehead of married Hindu ladies. There is fairly extensive evidence for ancient mining of copper ores from Khetni regions of Rajasthan in north western India dating to about the 3rd to 2nd millennium BC along with smelting furnaces from Harappan civilization. Early copper artifacts of about the sixth millennium BC are also reported from the pre-Indus Valley sites of Baluchistan. Bronze is an alloy of copper and Tin. Some of the most beautiful and well executed bronze-castings in the world are icons from the Chola period in the Thanjavur area of south India in 10th century A.D. Investigations by some metallurgists have shown that the earliest and continuing use of artifacts of rapidly quenched high-tin bronzes are from the Indian subcontinent. The well-executed statue of a dancing girl from Mohenjo-Daro from the Indus Valley was an example of the earliest bronze castings in the world.

The above facts indicate that the ancient Indian metallurgists have also made significant contributions to the world to deserve their place along with other great civilizations. As clearly seen in case of high carbon steel, corrosion free iron castings and metallic zinc extraction, ancient India contributed significantly to their modern metallurgical advances.  

Reference

1. Bose, D. M; Sen, S. N.; Subbarayapa, B.V.; A Concise History of Science in India. Indian National Science Academy, New Delhi (1971).
2. Boorstin, D. J.; The Seekers; the story of Man’s Continuing Quest to understand his world. Eck, Diana; India, A Sacred Geography. Harmony Books, New York (2013).
3. Frawley, David; What is Hinduism? A guide for the Global Mind. Bloomsbury Publishing India Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi (2018). 
4. Habib, Irfan; Technology of Medieval India, Tulika Books (2008).
5. Puttaswamy, T. K.; Mathematical Achievements of Pre-modern Indian Mathematicians, Elsevier (2012).
6. Raju, C. K.; Cultural Foundations of Mathematics; The Nature of Mathematical Proof and the Transmission of the Calculus from India to Europe in 16th Century CE, Pearson Longman (2007).
7. Thaper, Romila; The Penguin History of Early India from Origin to AD-1300. Penguin Books, New Delhi (2003).
8. Teresi, Dick; Lost of Discoveries- The Ancient Roots of Modern Science from the Babylonians to the Maya. Simon and Schuster, New York (2002). 

Abstract

Scientific progress is often achieved when successful quantitative analyses emerge from reality-based qualitative models. However, in domains beyond direct human perception, many dynamic parameters cannot be adequately conceptualized due to observational limitations. To address such challenges, scientists frequently introduce hypotheses, assumptions, and mathematical axioms that may deviate from the apparent uniformity of nature in order to develop predictive mathematical models. While such models may yield accurate quantitative results, their underlying physical mechanisms often remain difficult to visualize or comprehend. Human knowledge of nature arises through the natural functioning of the senses and consciousness, both of which are fundamentally linked to reality. Therefore, a mathematical model that lacks physical conceptualization may represent only an abstract description of an underlying reality-based process. If a hypothetical mathematical model successfully predicts experimental outcomes, there is no inherent reason why a physically realistic model describing the same phenomenon should fail to achieve equivalent quantitative agreement. Einstein’s Special Theory of Relativity and its mathematical formalism represent a remarkable achievement in quantitative physics. Nevertheless, the physical mechanism responsible for the relativistic increase in resistance to acceleration at high velocities remains conceptually challenging. The present work proposes a reality-based field–particle interaction model to explain this phenomenon. According to the proposed concept, all particles in their neutral state possess a nucleus surrounded by an extranuclear space structure. Charged particles are characterized by a modified extranuclear structure with reduced dimensions. Space itself is considered a physical medium composed of matter in a finer domain rather than an empty vacuum. Consequently, this medium offers resistance to particles moving at extremely high velocities. As the velocity of a particle increases, the resistive interaction with the medium causes directional deformation of its elastic extranuclear structure. Simultaneously, portions of the outer structure are progressively stripped away, leading to a complete loss of the extranuclear structure when the particle velocity approaches the velocity of light, (v = c). Since electric and magnetic fields propagate with velocity (c), the effective field–particle interaction is proposed to be proportional to the relative velocity ((c-v)) rather than to the constant value (c). Furthermore, the interaction strength is assumed to depend on the effective interaction cross-section, represented by the field area swept by the particle’s extranuclear structure during motion. As velocity increases, this interaction cross-section continuously decreases and becomes zero at (v = c). The combined reduction in relative interaction velocity and effective interaction cross-section causes the field-induced force acting on the particle to decrease progressively with increasing velocity. Consequently, the particle experiences a substantial reduction in acceleration as its speed approaches the velocity of light. This interpretation provides a physically realistic explanation for the observed difficulty of accelerating particles to light speed. Based on this framework, a new dynamical equation for high-speed motion has been formulated, and its predictions are found to be in close agreement with the corresponding relativistic equation. Keywords: Relativistic Dynamics, Reality-Based Physics, Field–Particle Interaction, Physical Space Medium, High-Speed Particle Dynamics.

Introduction

A body resting on the surface of a solid does not accelerate following straightforward Newtons law (F=Ma). The effective motive force for acceleration is obtained by deducting the frictional resistance to arrive at the working equation as F-µR = Ma, where µ is the coefficient of friction and R is normal reaction. For a particle moving in space, the insignificant resistance to motion offered by the medium becomes highly significant in high-speed motion which has to be accounted properly for the validity of Newtonian equation. Every atomic and sub-atomic particle have structure comprising the nucleus and extra-nuclear space structure in the new concept [1] [2]. The spatial space density of the space medium and its structural integrity with the nucleus decreases outwardly from the surface of the nucleus to the boundary of extra-nuclear space structure. The space medium, though devoid of micro particles but contains space matter particles of micro-micro domain light particles in neutral state. Hence the space medium is a photonic gas. Like the atomic gaseous fluid, the space medium is essentially a photonic gaseous fluid capable of offering resistance to motion of particles in space. The fluid resistance though insignificant in ordinary velocities becomes highly significant at velocities comparable to c, because the resistive pressure is proportional to square of velocity. The particle with equilibrium extra-nuclear space structure in a locality is a neutral particle. In a non-equilibrium state of mass-space association, the particle carries charge [3] [4]. The charge particle in a field (electric and magnetic field) experiences a force due to field-particle interaction. The interaction cross-section is the area that the extra-nuclear space structure of the particle sweeps the field. The extra-nuclear space structure deforms in motion due to the resisting pressure of the medium. The resisting pressure being proportional to the square of velocity, as the velocity increases the field-particle interaction cross-section decreases which in turn decreases the field induced motive force. At speed close to velocity of light, the entire extra-nuclear space structure is removed by the resistive thrust [5]. Thereafter, the interaction cross-section becomes zero and no further acceleration is feasible. This limits the maximum velocity which can approach up to the velocity of light. The Maxwell’s field velocity is same as the velocity of light. Thus, the field effect on transfer of momentum from field to particle is a function of relative velocity (c-v) and not c. When the particle velocity reaches the field velocity the momentum transfer from field to particle becomes zero. Here again the velocity of particle can only approach c and cannot exceed c. The combined effect of decrease in interaction cross-section and the relative velocity cause a rapid drop of the accelerating force. Besides the above considerations on reduction of effective motive force, we also notice a directional field effect due to charge polarization by the deformation of extra-nuclear space structure according to the new concept of charge. The new charge state of particle in high-speed motion has a role in the dynamics. The extra-nuclear space structure of particle, is deformed due to the impact of structured space medium which plays an important role in the dynamics that becomes highly significant in high-speed motion. It is absolutely necessary to have the physical concept of space, time and spacetime for realizing the physical significance of special relativity.

Critical Analysis of Historical and Contemporary Concepts of Physical Space

The author identifies mass and space as the only two fundamental constituents of the physical universe and the existence of three primary interactions: mass–space attraction, mass–mass repulsion and space–space repulsion [6]. Within this framework, gravity [7], electric charge [3],[8] and various optical phenomena are interpreted as consequences of these fundamental interactions. The theory seeks to provide a unified physical basis for several natural phenomena while avoiding the conceptual difficulties such as associated with wave–particle duality [9],[5],[10],[11],[12],[13]. In the proposed model, space is regarded as a compressible, continuous, and invisible fluid-like physical medium containing space-matter particles of finer domain [14]. Owing to the intrinsic space-space repulsion, space naturally tends to expand and distribute itself throughout the universe, thereby establishing universal continuity. However, this expansion is constrained by the attractive interaction between mass and space. The competition between these two opposing tendencies generates a non-uniform spatial distribution of space around material bodies, producing regions of varying space density. The interaction of mass–space attraction and space–space repulsion gives rise to pressure within the space medium. Consequently, regions possessing higher space density are associated with higher spatial pressure. Due to mass-space attraction, the nuclei in all domains organize and maintain the space structure surrounding it and the dense space retains the particles of finer domains within the space medium thereby forming space structures. These embedded constituents within the space medium are referred to as space-matter particles. Accordingly, an increase in space density corresponds to an increase in the number density of space-matter particles. Since the mass–space attraction is assumed to obey an inverse-square dependence on distance, every celestial body develops a variable nature of space-density distribution surrounding its central mass. This structure is conventionally recognized as the atmosphere of the celestial body and, in a broader sense, may be regarded as its extra-nuclear space structure. The extent of this extra-nuclear space structure depends upon both the mass of the central nucleus and the background space density. The background space density acts as a boundary condition determining the spatial extent of the structure. The same principle is proposed to operate for particles of all domains, where analogous extra-nuclear spatial structures exist. Spatial variations in both space density and the number density of space-matter particles of different kinds can be represented through three-dimensional density distributions. Since these distributions are determined by the properties of the central nucleus, the resulting spatial gradients provide a direct measure of gravitational effects. Gravity, in this interpretation can as well be evaluated from the manifestation of the spatial density gradient surrounding the matter. The theory further considers the nucleus and its extra-nuclear space structure as a single integrated physical system. Consequently, the spatial structure accompanies the nucleus during translational motion and co-rotates with it during rotation. Space-matter particles embedded within a rotating spatial structure experience centrifugal effects that oppose gravitational attraction. As rotational velocity increases, a condition may arise at a particular radial distance where centrifugal force exactly balances gravitational attraction, producing a state of effective zero gravity. This equilibrium condition is expressed as

GM₁m₂/d²=m₂v²/d

Under this condition, no net radial acceleration acts upon the orbiting body. Objects located at different distances from the nucleus acquire different spatial velocities corresponding to the rotational state of the surrounding space medium. Since gravitational attraction and centrifugal force become numerically equivalent at equilibrium, gravity may be quantitatively determined through centrifugal considerations. This observation suggests an alternative interpretation of gravitational phenomena and invites a re-examination of conventional concepts such as Newtonian gravitation and Einsteinian spacetime curvature. Historically, numerous concepts of space have been proposed and subsequently abandoned because of theoretical inconsistencies or experimental limitations. Nevertheless, many of these historical models contained valuable insights regarding the active role of space in physical processes. The present theory seeks to synthesize these useful elements into a revised conception of physical space, time and space-time.

Proposed Properties of Physical Space

The principal characteristics of the proposed space model may be summarized as follows:

• • Space is a real physical entity containing space-matter particles of finer domains due to space-mass attraction.
  • Space is both compressible and capable of indefinite expansion due to space–space repulsion.
  • Matter compresses space through mass–space attraction.
  • Space density varies spatially due to distribution of matter.
  • Spatial density gradients arise naturally around material bodies.
  • The number density of space-matter particles is directly proportional to local space density.
  • Gravitational field is a reflection of the directional gradient of space density or the density of space-matter particle since they are proportional to one another.
  • Space-matter particles may possess electrical or non-electrical charge characteristics thereby different charge fields arise from their density gradients.
  • Charge fields can undergo polarization under the influence of external charge distributions.
  • For practical purposes, space may be modeled as a fluid-like continuum.
  • The continuity of space provides continuity to the physical universe.
  • Matter and its associated spatial space structure constitute a unified dynamical system that translates and rotates together.

• As a physical medium, space can exhibit spatially varying structural and state properties. 

Distinction from Classical Ether Theories

Although the proposed concept attributes physical reality to space, it differs fundamentally from the classical luminiferous ether. Wave theories of light require a medium possessing an exceptionally high elastic modulus to support the propagation of electromagnetic waves. Such a medium would simultaneously need to offer negligible resistance to the motion of celestial bodies. These requirements appear mutually incompatible. A medium sufficiently rigid to sustain light waves would impede planetary motion, whereas a medium permitting unrestricted planetary motion would be incapable of supporting the required wave dynamics. This conceptual difficulty provides a basis for questioning the wave interpretation of light and motivates reconsideration of a particle-based description. In the present framework, physical space is envisioned as a low-density photonic gas analogous to an atomic or molecular gas. If light is fundamentally particulate rather than wave-like, then the absence of ether drift in the Michelson–Morley experiment does not necessarily preclude the existence of a physical space medium, since such a medium would not be essential to function as a carrier of light waves. Instead, it would serve as the physical substrate within which light particles propagate and interact. This revised conception seeks to restore an active physical role to space while avoiding the theoretical limitations historically associated with classical ether models.

Progressive development in concept of time, historical to updated

The concept of time has evolved continuously through philosophy, astronomy, classical physics, relativity and modern quantum theories. Human understanding of time progressed from a simple measure of natural cycles to a profound physical and philosophical entity connected with motion, change, matter and the structure of the universe. In ancient civilizations, time was understood mainly through repetitive natural phenomena such as day and night, lunar phases, seasons and planetary motions. Early Greek philosophers viewed time differently. Aristotle considered time as a measure of change and motion, not an independent substance. According to him, time exists because events and motions occur in nature. During the scientific revolution, Isaac Newton introduced the concept of absolute time. Newton proposed that time flows uniformly and independently throughout the universe, unaffected by matter or motion. In Newtonian mechanics, time was universal, identical everywhere and completely separate from space. Every observer shared the same cosmic clock. Later, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz challenged this view by arguing that time is relational rather than absolute. According to Leibniz, time is only the order or sequence of events and has no independent existence apart from physical processes. In the nineteenth century, the development of thermodynamics introduced the concept of the “arrow of time.” The increase of entropy suggested that natural processes possess directionality, distinguishing past from future. Time was no longer viewed merely as a neutral parameter but as something associated with irreversible physical change. A major transformation occurred with Special Relativity developed by Albert Einstein. Einstein showed that time is not absolute but relative to the observer’s motion. Clocks moving at high speeds experience time differently, leading to the phenomenon of time dilation. Later, General Relativity demonstrated that gravity can also affect the flow of time. Strong gravitational fields slow down clocks, linking time directly with matter, energy and spacetime geometry. Modern physics further transformed the concept of time. In quantum mechanics, time generally appears as a parameter rather than a measurable operator, creating difficulties in unifying quantum theory with relativity. Some modern theories suggest that time may emerge from deeper microscopic processes rather than being fundamentally continuous. The process-based time is dependent on the kinematics of the process which depends on local process parameters. Contemporary alternative approaches sometimes interpret time as a manifestation of physical change, energy transformation or structural reorganization of matter and space. Some thinkers propose that time is not an independent entity but a measure of sequential physical processes occurring in nature. In such views, the flow of time reflects the evolution of material systems rather than the movement of an invisible universal clock. In another contemporary interpretation, time is regarded not as an independent entity or a separate dimension of nature but as a conceptual measure derived from physical processes. According to this view, the perception of time emerges from the sequential occurrence of events, motion of matter, and transformation of energy within the universe. The apparent flow of time reflects the continuous evolution of material systems, while clocks merely register the rate of ongoing physical processes. Thus, time has no existence independent of matter, motion and change; rather, it serves as a quantitative description of the progression of natural phenomena. This perspective seeks to provide a more cause-and-effect-based understanding of temporal experience by relating time directly to the dynamics of physical reality [15]. Thus, the concept of time has progressively evolved from cyclic natural observation to absolute universal flow, relativistic spacetime dimension, thermodynamic directionality, quantum uncertainty and modern process-based interpretations. The history of science shows that time remains one of the deepest and most evolving concepts in human understanding of nature. In view of the foregoing discussion, time is not regarded as an independent entity that flows irrespective of matter; rather, within the process-based interpretation, it serves as a parameter describing the dynamical evolution of material systems. From this perspective, Einstein’s proposition that the passage of time is influenced by spacetime geometry warrants deeper examination in terms of process-based time and the role of boundary conditions. A fundamental principle of physical inquiry is that the local dynamics of an event are not altered by its distant observation. Observers situated in different frames of reference may record or describe the same event differently owing to their relative states of motion; however, such observational differences do not necessarily imply a change in the intrinsic physical reality of the event itself. The event remains singular, even though its description may vary among observers. Consequently, the interpretation of spacetime should provide an unambiguous account of physical reality that clearly distinguishes between the actual dynamics of a system and the observational effects associated with different reference frames. The remarkable predictive success of relativistic equations cannot be disputed; nevertheless, their conceptual foundations deserve continued scrutiny. It may therefore be worthwhile to investigate whether the relativistic relations can be derived from a framework based on physically relevant dynamical parameters, thereby preserving both their predictive power and conceptual clarity.

Historical concept of space-time prior to Einstein.

Before the development of relativity by Albert Einstein, space and time were generally treated as two completely separate and independent entities. The historical understanding of space-time evolved gradually through philosophy, astronomy, and classical mechanics. Space and time were associated with physical events but were not unified into a single framework. Time was viewed as flowing continuously, while space was regarded as the static arena in which motion occurs. Leibniz argued that space is merely the order of coexistence of objects, while time is the order of succession of events. According to him, neither space nor time possesses independent existence apart from material relations. Thus, prior to Einstein, the dominant historical view considered space as a fixed three-dimensional stage and time as a separate universal flow. The modern unified concept of spacetime had not yet emerged, though late nineteenth-century electromagnetic theory and transformation mathematics gradually prepared the foundation for Einstein’s revolutionary interpretation. Physical space possesses geometrical attributes such as extension, distance, and spatial relations. The dynamical evolution of matter, on the other hand, represents an intrinsic process that is not itself a geometrical property. If time is interpreted as a parameter characterizing this intrinsic dynamical evolution, then geometrical and dynamical aspects of physical reality belong to distinct conceptual categories. The spacetime formulation combines these categories into a unified four-dimensional geometric structure. While this formulation has proven mathematically successful, its physical interpretation remains a subject of philosophical discussion because the resulting four-dimensional geometry is not directly accessible to perception or intuition. If the dynamics of matter can be formulated with equal predictive success while maintaining a distinction between geometrical and dynamical parameters, then such an approach may provide greater conceptual transparency without sacrificing mathematical rigor. The question is therefore not whether spacetime mathematics is valid, but whether the fusion of geometrical and non-geometrical parameters is physically necessary or simply one among several mathematically equivalent descriptions of reality. The key challenge of the program is not philosophical consistency but demonstrating that a space-plus-process formulation can reproduce all experimentally verified relativistic effects—time dilation, length contraction, relativistic momentum, mass-energy equivalence, gravitational redshift, GPS corrections, and so forth without invoking spacetime as a fundamental entity. If that can be achieved, then it would become a scientific alternative rather than merely a philosophical critique. A motor bike moving on a road has a velocity ‘v’ at a given rate of energy input (fuel consumption). The windage resistance offered by the atmospheric air is proportional to the projected area of motor bike with rider, the density of the air, squire of relative velocity of the bike and the properties of the air medium. If the wind is in the direction of the motion, the bike will move at a higher relative speed than that in still air and has a reduced relative velocity when the wind is in opposite direction. A person sitting in a train observes the velocity of a bike as ‘v_r’. He further finds v_r varies with the speed of the train relative to the earth. It is found that the speed of the bike that respond to acceleration by fuel supply to the engine has a little significance with v_r. On the other hand, the motion of the medium (wind speed) has a role in the dynamics. However, it is not easy to translate the changes of local physical conditions when an object moves in free space or vacuum. In the existing concept though space is considered physical with ability to interact with matter but the physical nature of space is conceptualised through mathematical objects and events which is beyond human perception. The present author, on the basis of the uniformity of nature, has explored the existence of matter in finer domain (micro-micro domain) thereby perceiving a real structure of space similar to gaseous form of matter. He further, adds to the feasibility of different fields due to presence of non-electric charge (photonic charge) in space matter particles (photon). The new concept of physical space can have space density (space content per unit volume) and mass density due to the number density of space matter particles and the space medium can have different spatial velocities similar to wind velocity. Thus, the dynamics of a particle can be reworked out by considering the local relevant parameters instead of the consideration of observational special relativity. The observed motion from a moving frame, not connected with dynamics can be replaced by local parameters (local frame of reference) for a reality-based analysis. In this new concept the fused space-time has an ordinary significance of space with a dynamism where time is a function of dynamism. The dynamic equation F=ma though valid at lower velocity but doesn’t hold good at extreme high velocity due to improper coupling of the motive field force and the exponential increase of resistance offered by the medium. A body moving at the same speed cannot transfer momentum to another body at the same speed. When the speed of the charge particle increases, the effectiveness of electromagnetic coupling with charge particle decreases with increase of speed which causes reduction in the value on the interaction force E.e or qBv. The drive (interaction) from a field to a particle depends on the differential speed of the field particles and the particle being accelerated. The propagation velocity of electromagnetic field disturbances in vacuum medium is constant having the value ‘c’. But the velocity of an accelerated particle goes on increasing with a constant field-particle interaction. At any spatial velocity ‘v’, the field-particle coupling factor is dependent on (c-v). When ‘v’ is comparatively very small the difference can be approximated to ‘c’. Thus, the electromagnetic force for low velocity coupling condition gives a constant value given by E.e or qBv. However, when ‘v’ approaches ‘c’ the force coupling reduces very-very rapidly thereby the effort to accelerate is drastically reduced and becomes zero at the speed c. In the new concept every particle has a nucleus and extra nuclear space structure which is in equilibrium in neutral state. A charge particle with limited extra nuclear shell structure has a definite interaction cross-section for the field-particle interaction. The extra nuclear space structure is highly elastic and is subject to deformation in high speed motion. Thus, the spherical extra nuclear space structure deforms to spheroidal form, the longitudinal cross-section of which is ellipse. The interaction cross-section of the extra nuclear space structure reduces from πr² reduces to πb² where b is the semi-minor axis of the ellipse. With gradual increase of velocity, the kinetic energy of the particle goes on increasing and the particle successively loses electronic shells of extra nuclear space structure of the particle by attending successive ionization potentials thereby, further reducing the interaction cross-section. At extreme high velocity the particle will lose all its extranuclear space structure and the bare nucleus approaches the zero-interaction cross-section. In the new concept the interaction cross-section is dependent on the form on which the interaction takes place. However, following the old concept of interaction cross-section of the charge particle one may limit the interaction cross-section from the electromagnetic response time. However, the success of this new approach ultimately depends on whether it can quantitatively account for all relevant experiments, including muon decay, particle accelerators, atomic clocks and other precision tests. The subsequent discussion is made through mathematical interpretation.

Mathematical analysis on Newtonian Force equation for high-speed motion

Step 1: Basic Newtonian Equation

The author retained the universal status of the basic Newtonian equation and considered decrease of accelerating force due to changes in field-particle interaction. The basic Newtonian equation:

F=Ma

q.E=Ma

Where, E = Charge field q = Charge of the particle The field induced force on a charge particle considers q.E don’t remain constant for all velocity of the particle since it depends on the relative velocity between field and particle as well as the field-particle interaction cross-section. Hence, the force equation is modified in high-speed motion as:

q. E. α_v. β_v. η=Ma ,               Eqⁿ-1

Where, α_v is the force reduction factor at velocity v due to change in relative velocity. β_v is the force reduction factor at velocity v due to decrease of interaction cross-section. η is the force reduction factor at velocity v due to change of sheer resistance and drag force.

Determination of α_v

The velocity of field lines is the same as velocity of light (c), thus the relative velocity between the field and particle at rest is c. However, when the particle accelerated to velocity (v) the relative velocity for field-particle interaction changes to c-v, hence, the force reduction factor at velocity v due to change of relative velocity is:

α_v=(c-v)/c.

Determination of β_v

The interaction cross-section of extra nuclear space structure reduces gradually with increase of velocity of the particle due to the resistive thrust from the space medium. The force due to field-particle interaction decreases in proportion to the decrease of interaction cross-section. If the sweeping area of extra nuclear structure is reduced from  A₀ to A_v then v is given by:

β_v=A_v/A₀

The interaction cross-section area (A₀) due to the presence of extra nuclear space structure at rest or slow motion compared to velocity of light (c). The interaction cross-section reduces to A_v at velocity v by stripping off part of its extra nuclear structure that corresponds to A_Lv and the interaction cross-section area reduces to A_c at velocity c by stripping off the entire interaction cross-section. Ac becomes zero when ALc becomes A₀ when the interaction cross-section is stripped off fully. Thus:  A_c = A₀– A_Lc=0  ,     when A_Lc=A₀ (Numerically) Where, A_Lc is the loss of interaction cross-section at velocity v = c Similarly, A_v = A₀– A_Lv The reduction factor of loss of interaction cross-section at velocity v is given by Now,

β_v=A_v/A₀= (A₀-A_Lv)/A₀

=1-(A_Lv/A₀)

β_v=1-(A_Lv/A_Lc)

The loss of cross-sectional area is directly proportional to the dynamic pressure caused by the relative velocity between particle and the structured space medium which in term is proportional to square of relative velocity [16]. Thus,  A_Lv=kv²   and A_Lc=kc², where k is proportionality constant.

β_v=1-(A_Lv/A_Lc)=1-(kv²/kc²)

=1-(v²/c²)

Or β_v=(c²-v²)/c²

Determination of η

The factor contributing towards change in the accelerating force due to the thrust of the structured space medium and sheer at the interface of extra nuclear space structure of particle and the space medium. The contributing factor is a function of dynamic pressure and interaction cross-section. The factor increases with rise of velocity dependent dynamic pressure and decreases with velocity dependent interaction cross-section.   Thus, η=(p_v/p₀).(A_v/A₀) remain constant for all velocities. Therefore, the factor =1. Substituting the value of v, v & η in equation-1

F_v=F₀ (c-v)/c . (c²-v²)/c²=Ma,                 Eqn-2

F_v = Accelerating field force at high velocity v. F₀ = Accelerating field force at rest or low velocity. When  v -> c, c can be substituted by v but c² can not be substituted by v². Hence (c-v)²=c²+v²-2v²= c²-v² Hence, (c-v)²= c²-v² or c-v=√(c²-v²) Now, (c-v)/c= √(c²-v²)/c=√(c²-v²)/√c²=√((c²-v²)/c²)=√(1-(v²/c²)) Thus,

F₀(c-v)/c . (c²-v²)/c²=Ma

Becomes

F₀√(1-(v²/c²)) . (1-(v²/c²))=Ma

F₀(1-(v²/c²))^3/2=Ma

Substituting γ=1/√(1-(v²/c²))

F₀/γ³=Ma,                      Eqn-3

The above equation is the realistic equation in high-speed motion where the effective interaction force is reduced due to dynamical change in the form of extra nuclear space structure of the accelerating particle. If the above equation is written in the form:

F₀=γ³Ma,                      Eqn-4

For particle accelerator

q.E=γ³Ma

The equation assumes the expression of a relativistic equation. Though mathematically there is no difference between equation-3 and equation-4, but philosophically there is a great difference where the realistic equation-3 considers the accelerating force reduces due to situational conditions, whereas the relativistic equation-4 considers unrealistic relativistic effect. If now v becomes zero or close to zero (at rest or at low speed) the equation-2 reduces Newtonian equation form,   F=Ma. For the magnetic force in accelerator

F=qvB                        Eqn-5

For circular motion in accelerator:

F_B=mv²/r

At low speed:

qvB=mv²/r                             Eqn-6

As the velocity increases the magnetic flux B intercepting the particle reduces by a factor (c-v)/c. Thus, at low speed the factor remains near to 1 but is reduced drastically when v approaches the speed of magnetic field lines (c). The value of (c-v)/c ≈ √(1-(v²/c²)), where v -> c. The interaction cross-section for magnetic flux has a near ellipse form where at high-speed the semi-minor axis (b) decreases and semi-major axis (a) increases with square of velocity. Hence, the interaction cross-section for magnetic field lines remains nearly constant. Therefore, the term 1-(v²/c²) doesn’t appear for the magnetic interaction. Hence, at high-speed condition the equation-6 becomes:

qv (B×√(1-(v²/c²)))=mv²/r

Substituting γ=1/√(1-(v²/c²)) we get:

qB(1/γ)=mv/r

In this equation q, r & m remaining constant the effective interaction of magnetic flux B reduces realistically with increase in velocity. On the other hand, if q, B & r is assumed constant then the momentum (p) becomes associated with the factor. Therefore, the conceptual mode of equation changes to:

qB=γmv/r

p=qBr=γmv                            Eqn-7

Conclusion

The present work attempts to provide a reality-based interpretation of relativistic dynamics by introducing a structured physical space medium and velocity-dependent field–particle interactions as the underlying cause of the observed resistance to acceleration at high velocities. By considering the reduction of effective field coupling and interaction cross-section as velocity approaches the speed of light, the analysis derives a mathematical expression that assumes a form equivalent to the relativistic force equation while preserving a direct cause-and-effect physical interpretation. The paper further discusses revised concepts of space, time, and spacetime within a unified mass–space framework and highlights the possibility of explaining relativistic phenomena without invoking intrinsic modifications of space and time. Although the proposed model offers an intuitive conceptual alternative, its ultimate scientific validity depends on its ability to quantitatively reproduce all experimentally verified predictions of relativity with equal precision. The study therefore serves as an exploratory step toward a more physically interpretable framework for high-speed dynamics and the broader unification of physical sciences.

Reference

1. https://philosophyofnature.org.in/modelling-atomic-system.
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Abstract

This article presents a reality-based conceptual interpretation of energy intended to provide a unified understanding applicable across macro, micro and micro-micro physical domains. Energy is interpreted not as an independently existing substance, but as a relational property associated with matter through differential state conditions such as velocity, temperature, charge potential and gravitational level. Within this framework, the distinction between energy and energy level becomes fundamental, since the feasibility and direction of physical interactions depend primarily upon energy level rather than merely upon total energy content. Mechanical, thermal, electrical and radiative phenomena are examined to illustrate this distinction.

The article further explores conceptual issues associated with the conventional interpretation of photon energy. An alternative qualitative framework is proposed in which the relation

E=hν

may be interpreted as representing photon energy level rather than total photon energy alone. In this exploratory model, photons are considered possible physical particles of a finer micro-micro domain possessing extremely small but finite mass together with an intrinsic photonic charge state. Wave behaviour is interpreted as a mathematical representation of underlying particle interactions rather than an independent physical ontology.

The work also develops a mass-space framework in which charge, energy and interaction processes arise from non-equilibrium distributions of mass and space. Electrical, thermal and radiative phenomena are interpreted as manifestations of structurally similar processes occurring across different domains of matter organization.

The article does not reject the significance of mathematical physics; rather, it argues that qualitative realization of physical reality logically precedes quantitative formalization. The objective of the work is therefore to establish a conceptual foundation for future mathematical and electromagnetic development within a causality-oriented and physically interpretable framework of nature.

Keywords: Relational Energy, Mass–Space Interaction, Energy Level, Photonic Charge, Charge Potential, Micro-Micro Domain, Reality-Based Physics.

Mass–Energy Relation

Energy is commonly understood as the capacity of a system to produce change. In physical reality, however, energy is never observed as an independently existing entity detached from matter or physical structure. Every observable manifestation of energy is associated with a material system, field configuration or state condition of matter. From this perspective, energy may be interpreted as a relational property arising from the differential state of matter relative to its surroundings or to a chosen frame of reference [1].

A body situated on the Earth and possessing the same velocity, temperature, charge potential and gravitational level as its surroundings may be regarded as having no externally observable energy relative to that environment. Nevertheless, the body may still contain internal energy associated with microscopic structural non-equilibrium. When complete internal and external equilibrium is attained, no net exchange of momentum, heat or charge occurs with neighbouring matter. In such a condition, the system may be described as existing in a zero-energy-exchange state relative to that frame of reference.

If the reference frame changes, the same body may again exhibit energy because energy depends upon differential state relations rather than absolute existence. Transfer of matter between different reference environments naturally produces processes such as heat transfer, momentum exchange, and charge redistribution until a new equilibrium state is established.

This interpretation suggests that energy is fundamentally connected with both matter and state difference. While such a conception appears intuitive in the macro domain, conceptual difficulties emerge in the micro and micro-micro domains, particularly in the interpretation of photons and nuclear processes. In conventional physics, photon energy is treated independently of rest mass, whereas nuclear processes directly associate mass with energy transformation. These conceptual differences motivate the search for a more domain-independent understanding of energy.

An important distinction must therefore be made between energy and energy level. Energy determines the total capacity for interaction, whereas energy level determines the feasibility and direction of a specific process. Several familiar phenomena illustrate this distinction:

• A body containing a large quantity of heat energy at a lower temperature cannot transfer heat to another body at a higher temperature, whereas a smaller quantity of heat at higher temperature can do so.
• A body possessing lower kinetic energy but higher velocity may rise to a greater height against gravity than another body possessing greater total kinetic energy but lower velocity.
• Low-intensity high-frequency radiation can produce stronger photoelectric effects than high-intensity low-frequency radiation.

These examples indicate that physical interactions are governed not merely by total energy content, but also by the state parameter associated with energy level, such as temperature, velocity, frequency or potential.

In conventional quantum theory, photon energy is expressed by

E=hν

where () represents frequency and (h) is Planck’s constant. Within the present conceptual framework, this relation may alternatively be interpreted as representing photon energy level rather than total photon energy alone. The possibility is proposed that photons may possess extremely small but finite physical mass associated with a deeper micro-micro domain of matter organization. Such mass, if it exists, would be far below present experimental detectability.

In the conventional interpretation, frequency is regarded as a property of electromagnetic waves. In the present particle-oriented interpretation, however, wave behaviour is treated as a mathematical representation of underlying particle interactions rather than an independently existing physical entity. The state parameter associated with photon energy is proposed to arise from an intrinsic photonic charge state determined by the mass-space structure of the photon.

The present proposal remains exploratory and conceptual. Its physical validity and predictive capability would require substantial mathematical and electromagnetic development. The immediate objective is therefore to establish a qualitative conceptual foundation for a domain-independent understanding of energy extending from macro to micro-micro physical domains.

Understanding Energy Through Mass–Space Non-Equilibrium

Within the proposed framework, homogenization between mass and space does not occur through direct displacement because mass and space are considered mutually integrated aspects of physical existence. Instead, homogenization proceeds through the interaction and redistribution of mass-rich and space-rich particles.

Every local space medium is characterized by a definite mass-space ratio determined by the organization of its constituent space-matter particles. A particle whose mass-space ratio differs from the equilibrium ratio of the surrounding medium behaves as an active entity capable of rearranging the local structure in the direction of a new equilibrium distribution. Similar considerations apply to both mass-rich and space-rich particles.

Particles existing in non-equilibrium states relative to a reference frame may therefore be interpreted as active or charge-bearing particles. In this framework:

• Micro-domain particles are associated with electric charge,
• Micro-micro-domain particles (photons) are associated with photonic charge,
• Sub-photonic particles are proposed to possess thermal charge.

Although the underlying concept of charge remains common across domains, the strength and range of interactions vary significantly with scale.

An analogy may be drawn with the behaviour of an electrical capacitor. A capacitor stores electric charge at different electric potentials, where the stored charge is proportional to voltage. Similarly, a thermal system stores thermal charge at different thermal potentials represented by temperature. From this viewpoint, electrical and thermal phenomena may be interpreted as structurally analogous manifestations of mass-space activity at different organizational levels of matter.

This interpretation also provides an alternative conceptual basis for understanding electric charge. Conventional theory attributes opposite charge types to protons and electrons. In the present framework, however, positive and negative charge are interpreted as relative manifestations of differing mass-space ratios rather than fundamentally different substances [2]. Neutralization therefore represents attainment of equilibrium between differing charge potentials rather than annihilation of opposite entities.

The charge potential of matter is proposed to arise from the ratio of mass content to space content. Matter possessing identical mass-space ratios remains mutually neutral because equilibrium already exists between them. Consequently, neutrality is interpreted as a relational state property rather than the absolute absence of charge.

The apparent positive and negative signs of charge emerge only within a relative scale, analogous to positive and negative temperature scales defined relative to a chosen reference state. The feasibility of charge interaction depends upon potential difference rather than upon the existence of fundamentally distinct charge substances.

This approach attempts to provide a unified conceptual basis for attraction, repulsion, and charge neutralization while preserving continuity with observable electrical and thermodynamic phenomena.

Different Forms of Energy

Different forms of energy such as thermal, kinetic, electrical, sound and light energy are experienced in the macro domain. Although mutually convertible, each form is conventionally defined through distinct physical manifestations and characteristic modes of interaction.

Thermal energy, for example, expresses the dynamical condition of the internal structure of matter through the organization and interaction of its constituents. Macroscopic temperature thus reflects microscopic structural dynamics.

If finer levels of matter organization exist within deeper domains of nature, then particles of the micro domain may likewise possess internal structural states analogous to the thermal states of macroscopic bodies. Extending this reasoning further, all forms of energy observed in the macro domain may potentially be interpreted as manifestations of structural and dynamical processes occurring within progressively finer levels of matter organization.

Within the proposed framework, particles of every domain possess structured mass-space organization consisting of nucleus-like and extra-nuclear regions [3]. Variations in local mass-space ratio generate differing charge potentials and interaction behaviours. Matter appearing neutral in one reference frame may exhibit charge behaviour in another frame characterized by a different equilibrium mass-space ratio.

This concept may be clarified through familiar examples. A body maintained inside a furnace at temperature (t0) possesses no thermal energy relative to the furnace environment because equilibrium exists. However, when removed into a cooler environment, the same body exhibits heat energy and temperature relative to the new frame of reference.

Similarly, charge carriers confined within an electrical condenser at equilibrium potential possess no effective electrical energy relative to that system. When transferred into another environment possessing different potential conditions, electrical energy becomes observable.

In this manner, energy and energy level emerge as complementary but distinct concepts. Energy determines the total capacity for work, whereas energy level determines the feasibility and direction of interaction.

The proposed framework further attempts to interpret all fundamental interactions in terms of basic mass-space relations involving:

• mass-space attraction,
• mass-mass repulsion,
• space-space repulsion.

Within this interpretation, the conventional distinction between two fundamentally different electric charges is replaced by a unified description based upon relative mass-space ratios [2].

Although exploratory in nature, the approach seeks to develop a broader and more causality-oriented interpretation of energy, charge and interaction processes. If successful, such a framework could contribute toward the development of a more unified understanding of physical reality across all domains of nature.

Conclusion

The present work has attempted to develop a qualitative and reality-based interpretation of energy applicable across macro, micro and micro-micro domains of nature. Energy has been interpreted not as an independently existing substance, but as a relational property arising from differential state conditions of matter relative to a chosen frame of reference. Within this framework, the distinction between energy and energy level becomes fundamentally important, since the feasibility and direction of physical interactions depend primarily upon energy level rather than merely upon total energy content.

The article further proposes that thermal, electrical, radiative, and mechanical phenomena may be understood through a generalized mass-space framework in which interaction processes arise from non-equilibrium distributions of mass and space. Charge is interpreted as a state property associated with mass-space ratio, while positive and negative charges are treated as relative manifestations of differing charge potentials rather than fundamentally different entities. This interpretation attempts to provide a unified conceptual basis for attraction, repulsion and charge neutralization phenomena.

The work also explores an alternative interpretation of photon energy in which the relation: E=hν, may represent photon energy level rather than total photon energy alone. Within this exploratory framework, photons are considered possible physical particles possessing extremely small but finite mass together with intrinsic photonic charge states. Wave behavior is interpreted as a mathematical representation of underlying particle interactions rather than an independently existing physical ontology.

The proposed framework remains conceptual and requires substantial mathematical, electromagnetic and experimental development before its physical validity can be evaluated rigorously. Nevertheless, the approach seeks to emphasize that qualitative realization of physical reality logically precedes quantitative formalization. By attempting to generalize the interpretation of energy, charge and interaction across different domains of matter organization, the work aims to contribute toward the development of a broader and more causality-oriented understanding of nature. 

Reference

1. https://philosophyofnature.org.in/unified-concept-of-energy-for-all-domains.
2. https://philosophyofnature.org.in/new-concept-of-electric-charge-in-matter.
3. https://philosophyofnature.org.in/mass-space-structure-of-centrally-organized-systems.

Abstract

This article examines the hidden physical reality underlying modern mathematical physics and argues that excessive dependence on abstract mathematical formalism has gradually separated micro-domain physics from reality-based conceptual understanding. Mathematics, being fundamentally a relational and quantitative tool, can successfully correlate physical parameters but cannot independently establish the ontological reality of physical entities and mechanisms. The article emphasizes that philosophy, logic, conceptual physics, and mathematics must function together for a comprehensive understanding of nature. The work proposes that the universe is fundamentally constituted of two formless physical realities: mass and space, while all observable entities are mass-space integral systems possessing form and form-based properties. The paper further argues that the universal norms of nature- consistency, continuity, causality and similarity of structure across different domains should remain valid from micro-micro domain to macro-macro domain. Based on this principle, the article critically re-examines prevailing concepts such as wave-particle duality, identical nature of fundamental particles, abstract field theory, matter-free vacuum, quantum indeterminacy and the interpretation of the Michelson–Morley experiment. A reality-based interpretation of field, space, time, space-time, gravity, atomic structure and light propagation is proposed by considering physical space with space matter particle of finer domain as a dynamic fluid medium. The article further attempts to establish conceptual continuity between atomic systems and celestial systems through the uniformity of nature. It is argued that many quantum phenomena presently treated as acausal or abstract may originate from hidden causal processes operating in deeper micro-micro domains beyond current observational limits. The study finally suggests that incorporation of reality-based universal norms into mathematical formalism may help reduce the growing separation between conceptual physics and mathematical physics, thereby contributing toward a more unified understanding of science and nature.

Keywords:  Conceptual Physics, Mathematical Physics, Physical Reality, Mass-Space Interaction, Philosophy of Science, Space-Time, Quantum Causality, Field Theory, Physical Vacuum, Unification of Sciences

Introduction

Modern physics has achieved extraordinary success in quantitatively describing natural phenomena through mathematical formalism. However, the increasing dependence on abstract mathematical structures has also raised philosophical questions regarding the underlying physical reality represented by such formulations. Mathematical physics is highly effective in correlating measurable parameters and predicting experimental outcomes, yet mathematical consistency alone may not always guarantee conceptual clarity regarding the physical nature of the entities and mechanisms involved. Conceptual physics attempts to understand nature through causality, physical feasibility, continuity and reality-based interpretation. Mathematics, philosophy, logic and physics therefore perform complementary rather than competing roles in scientific understanding. Mathematics provides quantitative relationships, while philosophy and conceptual physics help examine the ontological and causal significance of physical theories.

The present work argues that excessive dependence on domain-specific assumptions in micro-domain physics has gradually separated microphysics from the continuity observed in macro-domain nature. As a result, the structures, properties and interactions of micro particles are often considered fundamentally different from those of larger systems. The article proposes that the observable universe may instead obey common universal norms across all domains of nature. In the present framework, the fundamental formless constituents of the physical universe are considered to be mass and space [1]. All observable entities are treated as mass-space integral systems possessing form and form-based properties [2]. Properties such as charge, energy, temperature and field are interpreted as state properties emerging from the configuration and interaction of mass-space systems [3] [4]. The article further explores the possibility that the continuity and uniformity observed in macro-domain systems may also extend into micro and micro-micro domains [5]. Based on this philosophical standpoint, several prevailing concepts of modern physics including abstract vacuum, wave-particle duality, independent field ontology and quantum acausality are critically re-examined. The objective of the study is not to reject mathematical physics, but to emphasize that mathematical formalism and physical realism should evolve together. The work therefore attempts to develop a conceptual framework in which philosophy, causality and physical feasibility remain integrated with scientific formalism.

Universal Norms of Nature

The present work proposes that nature follows certain universal norms that remain valid across different domains of existence. These norms are not considered merely mathematical assumptions but philosophical principles inferred from continuity and uniformity observed in the natural world.

The first proposed norm is the consistency of nature. Natural laws do not arbitrarily change with time or domain. A principle operating in one domain may appear in modified form in another domain, yet the underlying causality remains continuous [6] [7].

The second proposed norm is the uniformity of structure and feature across domains. The observable universe reveals organized systems at multiple scales, including atomic systems [6], planetary systems, stellar systems and galactic systems. Although dimensions and physical conditions differ significantly, structural similarities may indicate deeper continuity in nature.

The third proposed norm is the universal presence of mass and space in all physical existence. According to the present framework, all observable forms are mass-space integral systems possessing definite geometrical configuration and state properties [8].

The fourth proposed norm is causality. Every physical event is assumed to possess a cause, even if that cause remains hidden due to observational limitations. From this standpoint, quantum events presently treated as probabilistic or acausal may originate from hidden processes operating in deeper domains beyond current experimental reach [5].

The article argues that if such universal norms are maintained consistently while formulating physical theories, the separation between macro-domain and micro-domain understanding may gradually reduce.

Reality in Atomic Structure

The early planetary models of the atom were inspired by the observed similarity between atomic systems and celestial systems. Although those early models could not fully explain atomic spectra, the present work argues that their philosophical basis the uniformity of nature should not necessarily be abandoned. The failure of the planetary model may have resulted not from the absence of structural similarity, but from incompleteness in the modelling process. Instead of extending the model by incorporating additional structural features, modern physics gradually adopted increasingly domain-specific assumptions that departed from macro-domain intuition.

The present work proposes that centrally organized systems throughout nature may possess common structural characteristics [2]. Examples include solar systems, galactic systems, and atomic systems, each consisting of a central region and surrounding organized structure. In this interpretation, the atomic system is viewed as a mass-space organized structure rather than an abstract probabilistic entity. The article further proposes that atomic phenomena may arise from interactions involving finer micro-micro domain constituents associated with structured physical space.

The proposed framework also attempts to reinterpret charge as a state property related to mass-space configuration [3]. In this view, different forms of charge observed in different domains may represent domain-specific manifestations of more fundamental mass-space interactions [9]. Although speculative, the approach attempts to restore conceptual continuity between atomic and celestial systems while maintaining philosophical consistency across scales of nature.

Concept of Field and Physical Vacuum

In modern physics, a field is generally represented as a physical quantity assigned to every point of space-time. Gravitational, electric, magnetic, scalar and quantum fields are therefore treated mathematically as distributed properties of space. Although this framework has achieved considerable predictive success, questions remain regarding the deeper physical nature of the medium through which such fields exist and interact [10] [11] [12] [13] [14].

The present work proposes a reality-based interpretation in which the so-called vacuum is not absolute emptiness but a physical medium populated by ultra-fine space-matter particles belonging to a deeper micro-micro domain. In this approach, fields are not treated as independent abstract entities; rather, they are considered spatially differential states arising from the organization, disturbance or polarization of this underlying medium. According to this interpretation, a physically meaningful field should correspond to a non-uniform condition capable of producing measurable interaction with particles or bodies. A perfectly uniform condition, though mathematically definable, may not possess direct physical distinguishability from the absence of a field. The proposed framework attempts to provide conceptual continuity between different known classes of fields. Just as pressure and density variations exist in ordinary gas media, electromagnetic and gravitational field effects may similarly emerge from organized states of finer particulate media. This interpretation does not deny the mathematical utility of existing field theory. Rather, it attempts to supplement the formal description with a physically intuitive ontology.

Uniformity and the Nature of Fundamental Particles 

Modern physics generally treats fundamental particles of a given class as identical in mass and charge. This assumption has proven highly successful mathematically and experimentally for describing collective particle behaviour. The present work, however, raises the philosophical question of whether strict identicality represents physical reality or a useful approximation. In macroscopic systems, apparent uniformity often emerges statistically despite underlying variation among constituents.

The article proposes that if particles possess internal structure associated with deeper micro-micro domains, then small variations in state properties may exist without immediately contradicting observable average behaviour [15]. Similarly, the work questions whether presently observed particle properties might depend partly upon the surrounding state of structured space [3]. If so, particle behaviour may not arise solely from isolated intrinsic properties but also from interaction with the surrounding medium. The purpose of this discussion is not to reject established particle theory, but to explore whether deeper causal interpretations may exist beneath current formal descriptions.

Physical Significance of Space

Space is generally represented in modern physics through geometrical description such as distance, direction, curvature and coordinates. Geometry, however, is fundamentally relational. It describes the configuration and positional relationship between entities but does not directly explain the intrinsic physical nature of space itself. The present framework proposes that space should not be regarded as mere emptiness or passive background. Instead, space is treated as a physical medium possessing structure, density and dynamical significance [2] [16]. According to this view, physical space contains ultra-fine space-matter particles existing in domains beyond present observational capability [8]. Consequently, space may possess physical properties capable of influencing the behaviour of matter and radiation. This interpretation attempts to provide a physical basis for field interaction, propagation phenomena, and the dynamical behaviour associated with space-time.

Significance of Time

Time has no independent meaning in a completely static universe where no motion or transformation exists. The concept of time arises only in a dynamic universe containing changing physical systems. In this interpretation, time is not treated as an independent flowing substance but as a comparative measure associated with dynamical processes [17]. Periodic motions such as planetary rotation and revolution provide natural standards through which duration may be measured. Every physical system therefore possesses its own characteristic temporal significance depending upon its dynamical condition. Time becomes meaningful through motion, change, and interaction.

Significance of Space-Time

If space possesses physical structure and dynamical properties, then space-time may acquire physical significance beyond purely mathematical geometry. In the present framework, local space regions may contain different space densities and different dynamical states associated with surrounding matter distributions. Since time is related to dynamical condition, each spatial region may also possess characteristic temporal significance [17].

Thus, space-time is interpreted not merely as an abstract geometrical manifold but as a physically dynamic medium characterized by:

• spatial density,
• embedded space-matter content,
• and local dynamical state.
• Gradients of space density, number density of different space matter particles.

This interpretation attempts to provide a physically intuitive understanding of relativistic effects while preserving the mathematical usefulness of space-time formalism.

Gravity as Dynamic Space-Time Interaction

Newtonian gravitation describes gravitational interaction through force relations between masses, while Einstein’s relativity interprets gravity through curvature of space-time. The present framework attempts to reinterpret gravity by treating space itself as a physical medium whose local structure may be modified by the presence of mass and its dynamic state. According to this interpretation, mass interacts with surrounding space and changes the local density and organization of the space medium. The resulting variation in space structure contributes to the gravitational condition associated with that region.

The article further proposes that gravity may depend not only upon spatial density distribution but also upon the dynamical condition of local space. In this sense, gravity becomes associated with space-time interaction rather than merely static force attraction. Although conceptual in nature, this interpretation attempts to provide a physical ontology underlying geometrical descriptions of gravitation. 

Decay and Impermanence in Different Domains

Many philosophical traditions emphasize impermanence as a universal characteristic of existence. The present work explores whether gradual decay may also represent a universal physical process extending across different domains of nature [18]. All structured forms are composed of finer constituents held together through interaction and organization. Over sufficiently long-time scales, gradual structural changes may accumulate until the original form transforms into another stable configuration. The article proposes that events appearing sudden or quantum-like may actually arise from long-term gradual processes operating beneath observational resolution. By analogy, if atomic nuclei also undergo extremely slow structural evolution comparable to stellar evolution, their apparent stability during human observational timescales may not necessarily imply absolute invariance. The purpose of this argument is to emphasize continuity and causality rather than abrupt acausal transition.

Reconsideration of the Michelson–Morley Experiment

The Michelson–Morley experiment historically played a major role in the rejection of classical ether theories and contributed significantly to the development of relativity. The present work does not dispute the experimental result itself but proposes that alternative philosophical interpretations may still be explored. In conventional wave theory, propagation generally requires a medium possessing suitable restoring properties. The difficulty of defining a mechanically consistent ether contributed to the abandonment of classical medium theories.

 The present framework instead proposes a particulate interpretation in which light propagates through a structured space medium composed of ultra-fine space-matter particles. In this interpretation, the medium behaves more like a highly subtle particulate environment rather than a rigid elastic substance. Light propagation through motion of light particle is not assisted by the functional property of the medium whereas light as a wave is functionally linked with the property of space. Thus, the results of Michelson-Morley experiment precisely concludes that light is not a wave motion in a medium since the speed of light is not affected by the motion of the medium. The result of the experiment is not conclusive for the existence of ether. The article suggests that the observed constancy of light velocity may arise from the intrinsic interaction between light particles and the surrounding structured space medium [10]. This interpretation remains speculative and requires further mathematical and experimental development. However, it attempts to restore physical mechanism and causal continuity to light propagation and other phenomena of light.

Physical Understanding and Mathematical Formalism

Scientific progress generally requires both qualitative understanding and quantitative analysis. Before mathematical relationships can be formulated, there must first exist some conceptual understanding regarding the entities, interactions and mechanisms involved. Mathematics provides a powerful tool for correlation, prediction, and quantitative representation. However, physical parameters themselves arise from conceptually identified aspects of reality. Historically, many scientific advances began through qualitative insight before later receiving precise mathematical formulation. Conceptual understanding and mathematical formalism therefore develop together rather than independently. The present work argues that excessive dependence on abstract formalism without sufficient physical interpretation may sometimes produce conceptual difficulties in understanding the deeper reality represented by scientific theories. Accordingly, the article advocates a balanced approach in which mathematics and physical realism remain closely integrated.

Reality-Based Geometry

All physical objects possess fundamentally three-dimensional existence. Lower-dimensional representations are mathematical approximations arising when one or more dimensions become negligibly small relative to others. Geometry describes relational aspects such as shape, size, orientation, and location. However, physical systems also possess non-geometrical properties including mass, charge, temperature, and dynamical state. Time, associated with dynamical change, may be mathematically incorporated into higher-dimensional formulations. Nevertheless, the present work argues that space and time retain distinct physical significance despite their mathematical unification within space-time geometry. From this philosophical standpoint, space-time geometry is treated as an effective mathematical framework rather than direct perceptual reality.

Limitations and Scope of the Present Framework

The present work is primarily philosophical and conceptual in nature. Several proposed interpretations—including the existence of ultra-fine space-matter particles, reinterpretation of vacuum, alternative explanation of quantum phenomena, and continuity between atomic and celestial structures—require further mathematical development and experimental investigation. The objective of the article is therefore not to present a finalized physical theory, but to propose a reality-oriented conceptual framework that may motivate further exploration regarding the ontological foundations of modern physics. The article attempts to restore conceptual continuity between philosophy and physics while encouraging future development of models capable of connecting physical intuition with mathematical formalism.

Conclusion

The present study attempts to re-examine modern physical concepts from a realism-oriented philosophical perspective and argues that mathematical formalism alone cannot fully reveal the physical reality of nature unless supported by conceptual feasibility, causality, and universal consistency. Mathematics remains an indispensable quantitative tool for science; however, physical science ultimately depends upon reality-based understanding of entities, interactions, and mechanisms. The article proposes that the fundamental constituents of the universe are mass and physical space, and that all observable entities are mass-space integral systems possessing form and form-based properties. The continuity and uniformity of nature across different domains imply that the structural and functional similarities observed in macro systems may also extend into micro and micro-micro domains. From this standpoint, the prevailing separation between macro-domain and micro-domain physics may arise largely from domain-specific assumptions introduced to satisfy mathematical requirements without sufficient philosophical examination of reality.

Several prevailing concepts of modern physics—including abstract vacuum, independent field ontology, wave-particle duality, quantum acausality, and identical nature of fundamental particles—have been critically re-examined in the light of universal causality and continuity of nature. The study proposes that many presently unexplained quantum phenomena may originate from hidden processes operating in deeper micro-micro domains beyond current observational capability. The work further presents a reality-based interpretation of field, light propagation, space, time, space-time, gravity, and atomic structure by treating physical space as a dynamic particulate medium. The proposed approach attempts to restore conceptual continuity between physical phenomena observed in different domains of nature and thereby contribute toward the broader objective of unification of sciences. Although the present work is primarily philosophical and conceptual in nature, it attempts to provide a framework for future reality-based theoretical development. Further mathematical formulation, experimental examination, and detailed physical modelling are required to evaluate the scientific validity and applicability of the proposed concepts. 

Reference

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Abstract 

The particle-based concept of light presents itself as a physical process in the reality-oriented framework. In contrast, the conventional wave description of light particularly in the absence of a tangible propagation medium raises fundamental conceptual concerns and may be regarded as hypothetical in nature. A natural question arises: if the particle concept of light reflects physical reality, why does it struggle to adequately explain key optical phenomena such as constant velocity, refraction, diffraction, interference and polarisation? The limitation, however, does not necessarily lie in the particle concept itself, but rather in the oversimplified characterization of light particles as a structureless entity. When light is treated merely as a massless, chargeless point-like quantum of energy, essential parameters such as internal structure, intrinsic properties and interaction mechanisms are neglected factors that may play a decisive role in governing optical phenomena. In the proposed framework, light particles are not abstract quanta but entities belonging to a micro-micro domain of matter possessing finite mass (expressed in a photonic mass unit), non-electric form of charge (quantified in a photonic charge unit) and having internal structure comprising nucleus and extranuclear space structure, analogous in principle to atomic systems. Just as an atom is ionized by loss of electrons when excited in excess of ionization potential, a light particle moving at high velocity is postulated to lose negatively charged sub-photonic constituents from its orbital structure. As a result, light particles in motion carry a net positive photonic charge. The propagation medium is also re-envisioned as a structured entity composed of space matter particles spanning multiple domains, existing in both neutral and ionized states. This medium is capable of supporting distinct, mutually non-interacting charge fields including both conventional electric fields and non-electric (photonic) charge fields similar to those observed in the Earth’s atmosphere and ionosphere. Light particles, endowed with photonic charge, interact dynamically with the photonic charge fields of the medium through field-particle interactions. The naturally existing charge field in a homogeneous medium is largely inconsequential. However, at interfaces of different mediums, strong photonic potential gradients emerge, leading to highly polarized charge structures. The zero thickness of the interface in the macro domain scale becomes significantly large when expressed in the micro-micro domain scale, allowing a meaningful dynamic of the light particles within the interface medium.

Within this conceptual framework the author has already justified the fundamental optical phenomena including constant velocity, reflection, refraction, grazing incidence, diffraction and interference through consistent physical mechanisms. Following the new concept of light particle and the medium, the present work addresses the phenomenon of polarisation and proposes a coherent mechanism for the scattering of light.

Keywords: Polarization and scattering of light, Structured particle model of photons, Photonic charge dynamics, Sub-photonic particles (pholetrons), Field–particle interaction in medium, Interface-induced charge polarization.

Introduction

The interaction of a particle with a medium is a function of the structure and state property of the particle as well as those of the medium. In the new concept light particles (photons) have nucleus and extra-nuclear space structure with space matter particles and orbital particles (say pholetrons) Fig.1. The newly proposed terminology of pholetrons in photonic structure has similarity with the electron in atomic structure. The light particles carry absolute photonic charge by virtue of non-equilibrium mass-space association [1]. The local charge state of a medium though has an absolute value but is considered zero in relative scale for local charge activity of light particles. A light particle having the absolute potential same as the local space potential of the surrounding medium behaves neutral to the space matter particles of the medium. A light particle carrying charge at higher absolute potential than the absolute charge potential state of the medium is considered as positively charged photon and that carrying charge at lower absolute potential than the charge potential state of the medium is characterised as negatively charged photon in a relative charge potential scale where the absolute charge state of the medium is taken as zero. A photon at zero relative charge potential with reference to the charge potential of the local medium is in neutral to the local medium which is erroneously characterised as neutral matter in absolute sense. The so-called zero potential of neutral matter has a definite absolute charge potential and different relative charge potentials in different relative scales having different reference zero potentials. The above charge characterisation and the concept of neutral particles apply equally to electric and photonic charges in their respective domains [2]. A positive charge potential of one relative scale may become negative in another relative scale and vice versa, however, the absolute charge potential is always positive. The dimensional ranges of different charge interactions are different hence one type of charge doesn’t interact with another type of charge. A space medium associated with a celestial body contains space matter particles of different domains, hence different types of charge fields such as electric, photonic etc. are feasible in the atmosphere of a celestial body [3]. But the space medium of inter atomic space doesn’t contain electric charge bearing micro particles. A space medium in macro scale can have many varieties of charge field present in it and the fields in space medium can interact preferentially with the charge particles of different domains carrying different nature of charge. The electric charge field formed by photonic charge particles (micro-micro domain particles) carrying photonic charge and the photonic charge field is formed by micro-photonic charge particles carrying micro-photonic charge. In view of the above, a space medium/ vacuum, devoid of known form of matter, contains space matter particles of finer domains with multiple charge fields present in it. Any one aspect of study of the space medium introduces erroneous concepts of the space medium. Lack of perception to particles of finer and finer domains and the presence of different nature of charge fields compels one to make abrupt quantum assumptions on the features of particles and the fields as the fundamental unit of existence in nature. Thus, the physical perception of one type of particle or one type of field in a medium lead to an aspect-based conclusion of the reality and not the comprehensive reality of nature. This is something like the well-known story of perception of an elephant gained by six blind persons by touching different parts of the elephant.