Journal Vol 1 Archives - Institute of Philosophy of Nature

Divine Harmony: Unveiling the Cosmic Maestro

Nihar Ranjan Acharya — Fri, 29 Dec 2023 11:24:09 +0000

Abstract

In the vast expanse of the cosmos, where celestial bodies dance in a cosmic ballet, and the Earth finds itself in the Goldilocks zone – neither too closes not too far from the life-giving Sun – the intricate tapestry of existence begins to reveal itself. It is here, within the beauty of the planetary system, that we glimpse the fingerprints of a supreme lawgiver, an intelligent designer guiding the cosmic symphony.

As we gaze upon the night skies and marvel at the celestial wonders, we are invited to contemplate the meticulous precision inherent in the positioning of planets and the Earth’s ideal orbit. This orchestration, where each element aligns with poetic finesse, prompts us to recognize that such cosmic harmony cannot be a mere product of chance.

The Earth, a jewel suspended in space, basks in the warmth of the Sun at just the right distance – within the Goldilocks zone. This positioning, essential for sustaining life, speaks to a purposeful design that transcends randomness. The involvement of a supreme lawgiver becomes evident, as if a divine hand has carefully crafted the cosmic stage upon which our existence unfolds.

Yet, this lawgiver is not a creature with form or substance. Instead, it is a subtle force, an omnipresent influence that governs all natural laws. In contemplating the intricate dance of planets and the seamless interconnection of the universe, we discern the hand of a cosmic maestro – an intangible force that surpasses our understanding.

The Laws of Nature: A Symphony of Precision

Beyond the celestial spectacle, our exploration extends to the various laws governing the very essence of our world. Consider the laws of metals, where atomic structures, conductivity, and resilience are precisely calibrated. This precision in the natural order of materials implies a deliberate act, a crafting of laws that form the backbone of our technological advancements.

Shift focus to the delicate design of flowers, where beauty meets intricacy in a harmonious dance of color and form. Petals, sepals, and Fibonacci sequences in nature’s tapestry all bear the signature of an intelligent designer, imparting upon the floral realm an artistic brilliance that transcends mere evolutionary chance.

The Cosmic Blueprint: Logical Points and Consequences

Ponder the significance of Earth’s precise positioning in the solar system. A slight adjustment in distance, either closer or farther from the Sun, could tip the delicate balance necessary for life as we know it. This fine-tuned arrangement is not happenstance but a calculated act of a cosmic planner, ensuring the conditions for life to flourish.

Logical analysis underscores the implications of these observations. The precision and complexity evident in the laws of metals, the design of flowers, and the planetary system’s delicate balance defy the notion of a haphazard, unguided universe. The consequences of altering these finely tuned systems – from disruptions in technological advancements to impacts on ecosystems –highlight the fragility of life within this carefully orchestrated cosmic ballet.

A Rational Perspective: Acknowledging the Divine Wisdom

In conclusion, the evidence presented by the laws of nature, from metals to flowers and beyond, strongly points towards an intelligent designer. The logical analysis of these intricate systems reveals the importance of a lawgiver, a cosmic architect responsible for the precision and balance that permeate the cosmos. As we contemplate the intricacies of existence, the concept of a supreme lawgiver emerges as a compelling and rational explanation for the awe-inspiring beauty and order that define our reality.

Indeed, looking at the beauty of nature and cosmos, thinking in this light that an intelligent designer must be there is not a mere foolish idea. To dismiss this notion is to overlook the profound wisdom and artistry inherent in the cosmic masterpiece, where every element harmonizes with purpose and precision – an ode to the divine harmony that resonates throughout the universe.

Unveiling the Cosmic Tapestry: A call to Reverence

As we stand at the intersection of science and spirituality, the revelation of a cosmic maestro invites us to a deeper reverence for the mysteries that surround us. The laws of nature, etched into the very fabric of our reality, beckon us to acknowledge the wisdom embedded in the cosmic blueprint.

Consider the elegance of the water cycle, where droplets ascend to the heavens, form clouds, and descend as life-nourishing rain – a rhythmic dance choreographed by unseen hands. The intricacies of ecosystems, where predator and prey coexist in a delicate balance, mirror the intricate brushstrokes of an artistic genius.

The Grandeur of DNA: A code of Life

Delve into the grandeur of DNA, the intricate code that encodes the essence of life itself. The precision in genetic sequences, the intricacies of replication, and the marvel of cellular processes all testify to an intelligent designer sculpting the very code that defines our existence. Each strand of DNA is a testament to the divine craftsmanship shaping the living tapestry of life.

The Importance of Acknowledging the Lawgiver: A Logical Foundation

In our quest for understanding, it becomes increasingly clear that the idea of an intelligent designer is not merely a whimsical notion but a logical and profound perspective. The intricacies of natural laws, the finesse in design evident across various domains of nature, and the consequences of altering these systems all point toward a rational conclusion – a cosmic lawgiver, an architect of unparalleled wisdom and foresight.

Conclusion – A Symphony of Purpose

As we conclude our exploration of divine harmony within the cosmos, it is enlightening to draw upon ancient wisdom that echoes the sentiments expressed. The Brahma Sutra, a venerable Vedic treatise, encapsulates the essence of our quest with the profound statement “JanmadasyaYatah” (Sutra 2, Vedanta). This ancient aphorism signifies the source from which everything generates, the sustainer of all, and ultimately, the realm from which everything disappears – recognized as Brahma, God, or by any name that encapsulates the eternal idea. The ancient insight not only aligns with our scientific exploration but also resonates with the wisdom that has endured since time immemorial, inviting us to ponder the cosmic mysteries with reverence and humility.

We find ourselves standing on the precipice of a cosmic symphony – an intricate composition guided by a maestro beyond the scope of our comprehension. From the celestial bodies to the laws governing metals, from the delicate beauty of flowers to the complexities of DNA, the evidence converges to affirm the presence of an intelligent designer. Or you may give any other name to this truth – profound wisdom that suits you. After all, as science lovers, we recognize that the pursuit of truth transcends labels, embracing the universal principles that govern our existence. In our quest for understanding, let us humbly acknowledge the timeless nature of this truth, understanding that, regardless of the terminology we use, the cosmic harmony and the guiding intelligence that pervade the universe remain steadfast, awaiting our continued exploration with open minds and inquisitive hearts.

To embrace the concept of a supreme lawgiver is not to succumb to blind faith but to align ourselves with the rational underpinnings of the intricate design that surrounds us. The cosmic tapestry, woven with the purpose and precision, invites us to marvel at the grandeur of existence and acknowledge the divine wisdom that permeates every corner of the universe – a call to reverence the cosmic maestro and the sublime harmony that binds us all.

Here, the search begins and our affair with truth continues….

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Journey of Human Mind and Intellect in Search of Truth and Reality

Niranjan Barik — Tue, 26 Dec 2023 14:22:05 +0000

Abstract

Science and spirituality are the two most engaging disciplines of academic interest to many which essentially centers around the basic inquiry of human mind in search for the ultimate truth and reality of the natural world. While spirituality ventures into the inner world of the self in contemplative modes to access the truth in spontaneous revelatory process, science on the other hand giving primacy to matter, analyses the outer world following a different rational path based on abstract mathematical logic. After a long arduous journey of several centuries, twentieth century science has been able to see glimpses of the truth of the same kind as has been envisaged by spirituality in some sense. We attempt here to provide a brief narrative of this journey of human mind and intellect in search of the ultimate truth and realty.

Key word: Truth, reality, matter, reductionism, Quantum weirdness, Big Bang, Relativity, Leela.

We would like to narrate here the story of the journey of the human mind and intellect ever since the dawn of civilization in search of Truth and Reality along two different paths that unfolded before it. One path was leading the human mind towards the ‘inner world’ searching for the ‘self’, the meaning and the very purpose of existence to realize the transcendental Truth and Reality on the basis of pure deep contemplative thoughts. The other path, directed towards the ‘outer world’ of objects and phenomena, is purely mechanistic, reductionist and materialistic in approach with the concept of the cosmos based on rational thoughts and empirical observations. –

The travellers of the ‘inner world’ discovered the unit source of all existence as an attribute-less potentiality in the transcendental realm, which they called by various names as God the Absolute Truth and Ultimate Reality. This attribute-less unit source of all potentialities in fact is nameless and formless. Vedic seers called it Nirguna Brahman, which unfolded itself to ‘Purusha’ the cosmic consciousness and Prakriti the un-manifested physical world according to Hindu Shamkshya darshana belonging to Indian Spiritual Philosophy. ‘Purusha’ the cosmic consciousness of infinite potentiality breathed dynamism to the inert and un-manifested physical world to manifest itself with the emergence of space, time, matter and forces and create perpetual networks of dynamic patterns with things and beings. The seers saw the intrinsic interconnectedness of everything that exists and happens in the external phenomenal world. They also saw the unit source within the ‘self’ and the ‘self’ within the unit source. They called it the ‘Universal Self’ to declare it as ‘Aham Brahmasmi’ or ‘Tat Tvam Asi’ meaning ‘I am Brahman’ and ‘Thou art that’. The phenomenal world, which due to its interconnectedness, they proclaimed as our own family – ‘Basudhaiva Kutumbakam’. This external world which appears to our ordinary senses as true and real, is not eternal but only transitory and ‘illusion’ created by the source. These ideas have been described metaphorically in various ways in all spiritual traditions.

However the travelers of the path of reason and empiricism giving primacy to matter and the forces of their interaction went on in a reductionist manner, peeling layers after layers of their so called material reality of the external world, banishing the role of mind and consciousness from their search. They branded the findings of the spiritual domain as speculative and baseless – sheer mysticism. They did not grant any legitimacy to the world body of spiritual wisdom. While the travelers of this path have been extraordinarily successful in unearthing many mysteries of the material world and crafting advanced technology; they have left human psyche in a state of limbo considering consciousness and freewill as mostly fictitious; the universe as ad hoc, random and devoid of any purpose or meaning. The path is a continuation of the one that the majority of humanity is currently following on their journey. In the process of giving primacy to matter the travelers of this path-called the scientists, have discovered the laws of nature by rationally studying the nature and finding regular patterns in the empirically observed data. They have unfolded mystery after mysteries probing deeper and deeper into the core of the material existence to find more mysteries lying in the microscopic realm of the subatomic particles – landing them in a quantum world of uncertainty and weirdness. There the microscopic objects are not isolated solid and inert entities as we find in their bulk property. They are inherently interconnected and randomly dynamic. The matter in them has been melted away in the form of an all pervading field of energy. These so-called building blocks of matter are nothing but the excitations of the fields as packets of energy. These energy quanta, which we still call particles like electrons, quarks, protons and neutrons etc. have the dual property of simultaneously behaving as a particle or a wave. They propagate like a wave being everywhere at the same time until we attempt to see and locate them and under observation only they appear as particles. It seems as if they have a mind of their own to read the intention of the observer in observation. There are many other quantum weirdnesses such as quantum entanglement that speaks about the non-locality nature of instantaneous influence across the space barrier of indefinite dimension. The quantum frenzy of the quantum vacuum of absolute nothingness buzzing always with bubbling quantum fields of particles and forces-constantly creating particles and annihilating them instantaneously like the ocean sprays. This quantum vacuum is the ultimate source from which all the building blocks of matter and their forces of interaction have been created. The scientists have realized that probably the end game lies in successful attempts for the unification of all the fundamental particles and forces into a super grand unified scheme -they called the unified field theory. Probably they have found the address of the ultimate source of all existence in this ‘quantum nothingness’ which the Buddhists used to call ‘Sunyata’ and Hindus used to call ‘Brahman’. But they have not made much progress either in their chartered directions or also in understanding the ‘inner world’ of mind and consciousness.

However in their long and tortuous journey on the path of reductionist materialism, the human mind surely has gained intimate knowledge of the workings of the universe and this expertise gave us the greatest gifts as the fruits of technology. But in an act of cosmic irony, this expanding island of knowledge found itself surrounded by ever longer shores of ignorance. We are truly surrounded by perplexing enigmas. Apart from the quantum weirdness of the microscopic domain we have mentioned earlier; we find also in special relativity that there exists an upper limit to how fast information can travel in space (the constant speed of light) which results in the surprising malleability of space and time and passage of time can vary for each observer depending on his state of motion. Even time, a notion so central to our experience of reality, seems so far from our intellectual grasp as it appears to be an emergent property. Matter itself eludes the grasp of our mind, since neither the notions of fields nor particles suffice to capture its essence. The question of cause and effect cannot be upheld in time alone. But this cause-effect relationship called causality is upheld only in the mystifying weaving of space and time into a four dimensional fabric of space-time, where borders of space time are blurred and reality appears as an inconceivable four-dimensional atemporal one. Force of gravity turns out to be an illusion created solely by the unseen curvature of space-time in Einstein’s general relativity. Humanity’s greatest achievement in cosmology is probably the discovery that the universe forever is expanding at an accelerated rate. But it is a profoundly unsettling fact that 95% of the contents of the universe is, embarrassingly, not accounted for in the available theories of the cosmos. This major portion of the contents is designated as dark energy (70%) and dark matter (25%). The matter that we boast to describe and explain as the reality constitutes only about 5%. The list of paradoxes faced by modern physics goes on and on. It appears as though every explanation creates more new problems – the closer one looks, the more one finds to be explained.

Even more troubling is that there have been multitudes of cosmic coincidences of the universe to have reached this exact state during its 13.8 billion years of history harboring life and sentient beings at least in one of the planets like planet earth in billions of stars of billions of galaxies. For instance, the perfect fine tuning of physical constants allowing a complexly structured universe to emerge from the primordial cosmic energy soup after Big Bang, the unseen universal force driving the cosmos to ever greater structure and complexity, the forging of heavy elements like carbon and oxygen in stellar furnaces to be distributed across space by supernova explosion; special properties of carbon, oxygen, water, nitrogen and phosphorous as necessary prerequisites of life; the exact positioning of Earth in our solar system; the accumulation of liquid water on earth; the emergence of the first biological replicators on earth; the appearance of cyanobacteria, the first organism to harness energy from Sun by photosynthesis; the self-organized engineering of complex life form as cells (Eukaryotes), the evolutionary burst 540 million years ago called the Cambrian explosion filling the seas with unprecedented diversity of organisms; the emergence of insects, birds, reptiles, amphibians, mammals, dinosaurs etc. rendering evolutionary process chaotic; extinction of dinosaurs allowing mammals to dominate; demise of several early human species leaving one lineage of homosapiens as the sole conqueror of the solar system due to the emergence of consciousness and the capacity of abstract thought leading to language and culture. There are many more such accidental issues in the ultimate design of the universe to its present state. This is the stunning tale of cosmic evolution fraught with chance inviting various explanations. This apparent fine-tuning, however accidental, seems ubiquitous. The cosmologist Andrei Linde remarks –

“There are many strange coincidences in our world. The mass of the electron is about 2000 times smaller than the mass of the proton. Why? The only reason is that if it were even a little different, life as we know it would be impossible. The masses of proton and neutron almost coincide. Why? If the masses of either were even a little different; life as we know it would be impossible.””

Such utterances come very close to questioning the materialistic and reductionstic orthodoxy, considering life as ‘just chemistry’ and mind as ‘just computation’. But the origin of life and explanation of conscious experience remain troubling us with difficult problems, despite the availability of what should be more than adequate biochemical and neuroscientific tools to expose the details. So at the fringes of knowledge, the human mind is challenged by perplexing mysteries in choosing to travel on a path (of materialistic science) that has no milestones indicating ‘purpose’ and ‘meaning’ of existence. This is mostly due to the influence of the most obsessive and passionate Western mind in favor of the materialistic route denigrating Eastern mind as primitive and as a result, humanity has now realized that in return of the gifts of the ocean of knowledge and the fruits of technology; the price being paid is in alarming dimensions threatening complete extinction of life from the surface of the Earth. This has been aptly narrated in a bestselling book – “The Passion of Western Mind” by the historian Richard Tamas (2010, page 362). We may quote here his words in writing as-

“Traditional structures and values (in human society) were crumbling. With an unending stream of technological innovations, modern life was subject to unprecedented disorienting rapidity of change. Gigantism and turmoil, excessive noise, speed and complexity dominated the human environment. The world in which man lived was becoming as impersonal as the cosmos of his science. With the pervasive anonymity, hollowness and materialism of modern life, man’s capacity to retain his humanity in an environment determined by technology seemed increasingly in doubt…. But compounding these humanistic critiques were more disturbingly concrete signs of science’s untoward consequences. the critical contamination of planet’s water, air and soil, the manifold harmful effects on animal and plant life, the extinction of innumerable species, the deforestation of the globe, the erosion of topsoil, the depletion of groundwater, the vast accumulation of toxic wastes, the apparent exacerbation of the green-house effect, the breakdown of ozone layer in the atmosphere, the radical disruption of the entire planetary ecosystem – all this emerged as directly serious problems with increasing forces and complexity.”

This is not the sole voice raising concern, but the entire world body has now joined the chorus searching for remedial solutions, looking for values, meaning and purpose of existence in Eastern Wisdom. May we hope that Ancient Indian Wisdom can serve as a guide for humanity again at this critical moment?

Conclusion

In our journey of narration of the two groups of travellers on their two different paths, we are probably approaching the cross road, where both the groups may meet to shake hands and understand each other for the preservation and welfare of all humanity. Ancient Indian wisdom may guide the human race how to live in peace and harmony with nature, however mystical or metaphorical in its description it may be. The deeper meaning and the philosophical contents of all the descriptions in the spiritual context to some extent, has been reflected in modern physics. As for instance, according to the basic myth found within the traditional lore of ancient India, existence is seen as a play or ‘lila’ of the unit source – ‘the Brahman’. In the words of the famous Indologist – Allan Wattts (1971, p.99)

“In the beginning – which was not long ago but now-ever-is the Self. Everyone knows the Self, but no one can describe it, just as the eye sees but does not see itself. Moreover, the Self is what there is and all that there is, so that no name can be given to it. It is neither old nor new, neither great nor small, neither shaped nor shapeless. Having no opposite, it is what all opposites have in common. It is the reason why there is no white without black and no form apart from emptiness. However, the self has two sides, the inside and the outside…

Because of delight the self is always at play and its play is called ‘lila’, is like singing or dancing, which are made of sound and silence, motion and rest. Thus the play of the Self is to lose itself and to find itself in a game of hide-and-seek without beginning or end. In losing itself it is dismembered, it forgets that it is the one and only reality and plays that it is the vast multitude of beings and things which make up this world. In hiding itself it is remembered, it discovers again that it is forever the one behind the many, the trunk within the branches, that it seems to be many is always ‘Maya’, which is to say illusion, art and magical power.

The playing of the Self is therefore like a drama in which the Self is both the actor and the audience. On entering the theatre, the audience knows that what it is about to see is only a play, but the skilful actor creates a ‘Maya’, an illusion of reality which gives the audience delight or terror, laughter or tears. It is thus that in the joy and sorrow of all beings, the Self as audience is carried away by itself as actor.”

This may be similar to the quantum frenzy of absolute nothingness, the buzzing and bubbling of the quantum fields with unceasing creation and annihilations of virtual particles in modern physics.

So if that is the story in essence depicted symbolically through a myth, it certainly conveys the meaning and purpose of existence for a peaceful living in harmony with each and all in nature. We may now end our journey here by reminding the Vedic shanti patha mantra-–

“Antareekshyah Shantih, Banaspataye Shantih; Aapah Shantih; Pruthibi Shantih; Shantihreva Shantih.

Sarve Bhavantu Sukhinah Sarve Santuh Niramaya; Sarve Bhadrani Pashyantu; Ma Kashchit Dukshavak Bhavet. Om Shantih, Shantih, Shantih.”

Om Tat Sat.

Reference

Does It Matter (Essays on man’s relation to materiality) by A.W. WATT New world library publication Novato (1971), page- 99.
The Passion of Western Mind (Understanding the idea that has shaped our world view) by Richard Tamas. Vintage publishing, New York (2010), page-362

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Understanding Global Warming from Vedic Perspective

Ravi Prakash Arya — Tue, 26 Dec 2023 14:00:50 +0000

Abstract

Global warming is one of the burning issues of the modern era. Although it has always been an issue of discussion generally assigned to solar radiation, but its pace has increased in the last century. So, the scientists are assigning this factor to the burning of fossil fuels. Accordingly, the increase in population is seen as the direct impact on the increase of fossil fuels burned. But there is another perspective which assigns this factor to the geothermal energy also. This is Vedic perspective. In this paper the Vedic perspective has been discussed in detail to understand the phenomenon of Global warming or what is known as ‘greenhouse effect’.

Key words: Global warming, greenhouse effect, geothermal energy, solar radiation.

Global warming: Global warming is the increase in the average temperature of earth’s near-surface air and oceans.

Global Surface temperature: Geothermal energy in conjuction with solar energy is repsonsible for 15 degree centigrade global surface temperature.

Introduction

Warming on the earth: Modern view

According to a commonly accepted view of the Modern Meteorologists, warmth for the earth is provided primarily by the sun’s energy. At an average distance from the sun of nearly 150 million kilometers (km) or 93 million miles (mi), the earth intercepts only a very small fraction of the sun’s total energy output. However, it is this radiant energy (or radiation) that drives the atmosphere into the patterns of everyday wind and weather and allows the earth to maintain an average global surface temperature of about 150 C (590F). During last 150 years of Industrial Revolution the temp. of crust of the earth and that of troposphere has risen from 15 degrees Celsius to 15.8 degrees Celsius.

Warming on the earth: Vedic View

While studying the treasure of the Vedic wisdom, we come to know that it is not only the sun which is the sole factor contributing to the warmth of the earth in the solar system, but the geothermal energy of the earth is also contributing to the warmth on it. According to the Vedas, Agni has its abode in the earth. Accordding to the first mantra of the Brahmchari Sūkta of the Atharvaveda (1.5.1) envisaged by Brahma-

ब्रह्मचारीर्श्चरति रोदसी उभे तस्मिन् देवाः संमनसो भवन्ति।

स दाधार पृथिवीं दिवं च स आचार्यं तपसा पिपर्ति॥ अथर्ववेद, 1.5.1

brahmachārīrścharati rodasī ubhe tasmin devāḥ saṁmanaso bhavanti,

sa dādhāra pṛthivīṁ divaṁ cha sa āchāryaṁ tapasā piparti.

(ब्रह्मचारी) A Vedic Scholar (चरति) continuously focuses (रोदसी) on the Sun and the earth. (देवाः) The parents and teachers (भवन्ति) hold (संमनसो) similar opinion (तस्मिन्) about him. (That is they are uneqvivocable about his mission). (सः) He (दाधार) makes judicious use of (दिवम्) solar insolation and (पृथिवीम्) geothermal energy. (सः) He (पिपर्ति) makes the teachings of (आचार्यम्) his teacher successful (तपसा) with his tapas i.e. new applications of solar and Geothermal energies.

At another place the Atharvaveda (1.1.10) clearly points out to two sources of energy beneficial to the humanity. The mantra reads as under:

अर्वागन्यः परो अन्यो दिवस्पृष्ठाद् गुहा निधी निहितौ ब्राह्मणस्य।

तौ रक्षति तपसा ब्रह्मचारी तत् केवलं कृणुते ब्रह्म विद्वान्॥ अथर्ववेद, 1.1.10

arvāganyaḥ paro anyo divaspṛṣṭhād guhā nidhī nihitau brāhmaṇasya,

tau rakṣati tapasā brahmachārī tat kevalaṁ kṛṇute brahma vidvān.

[Meaning] (निधी) Of the two types of energies (निहितौ) located (गुहा) in the cave (ब्राह्मणस्य) of universe, (अन्यः) one (अर्वाग्) is very near in the core of earth and (अन्यः) another comes (परः) far away (दिवः पृष्ठाद्) from the photosphere of the sun. (केवलम्) Only (ब्रह्मचारी) a Vedic scholar (रक्षति) makes a good use of (तौ) these two forms of energy (तपसा) with his knowledge. (तत्) This knowledge (कृणुते) makes him meaningful (ब्रह्म विद्वान्) scholar excelling in the knowledge of solar system.

In the next mantra (AV. 1.1.11), it is clearly stated that (अग्नी) two sources of Heat Energy (समेतः) are available (इमे) in both of the sun and earth (नभसी अन्तरा) that are mutually bound to each other by the force of attraction. (अन्यः) One (अन्यः) is very near (under our feet) and (अन्यः) another (इतः पृथिव्याः) is far way from this earth (in the sun). (रश्मयः) The heat energy emanating (तयोः) from both of these two sources (अधिश्रयन्ते) gets stored in the atmosphere of our planet. (That is to say that crust of earth, sea surface and winds are jointly heated by the solar insolation and geothermal energy. In other words, the combined effect of both types of energy is responsible for blowing winds, evaporation of waters and from oceans and other water bodies and over all heat content of the earth). (ब्रह्मचारी) The Brahmachari (Vedic Scholar) (आतिष्ठति) harness (तान्) both the energies (तपसा) with his technical knowledge for the benefit of humankind. The mantra reads as follows:

अर्वागन्यः इतो अन्यः पृथिव्याः अग्नी समेतो नभसी अन्तरेमे।

तयोः श्रयन्ते रश्मयो∙धि दृ़ढास्तानातिष्ठति तपसा ब्रह्मचारी॥

arvāganyaḥ ito anyaḥ pṛthivyāḥ agnī sameto nabhasī antareme,

tayoḥ śrayante raśmayo∙dhi dṛḍhāstānātiṣṭhati tapasā brahmachārī.

In addition to the above mantras of the Atharvaveda, the Rigveda (1.1.1-2) also points out to the fact that geothermal energy is the source of creation on the earth. It was harnessed by the previous seers and new seers are also harnessing it. This fullfills the energy needs of the scholars on this planet.

अग्निमीळे पुरोहितं यज्ञस्य देवं ऋत्विजम्। होतारं रत्नधातमम्॥

agnimīḽe purohitaṁ yajñasya devaṁ ṛtvijam, hotāraṁ ratnadhātamam.

(ई॒ळे) Let me harness (अग्निम्) the geothermal energy of the earth (पुरोहितम्) that which is the forerunner of (यज्ञस्य) creation on the earth (Note: if a planet is devoid of her geothermal energy she would become a barren planet), (देवम्) that which is highly effulgent, (ऋत्विजम्) that which create things according to their need and time, (होतारम्) that which provides several facilities worth living on the earth and that which (रत्नधातमम्) possesses precious gems available on the earth.

अग्नि पूर्वेभिः ऋषिभिरीड्य नूतनैरूत। स देवां इह वक्षति॥

agni pūrvebhiḥ ṛṣibhirīḍya nūtanairūta, sa devāṁ iha vakṣati.

(अग्निः) Geothermal energy located in the centre of the earth (ईड्यः) is worthy to be harnessed by both (पूर्वेभिः) ancient (उत) and (नूतनैः) modern (ऋषिभिः) seers/visionary persons. (सः) He (आ वक्षति) sends (देवान्) geothermal radiation (इह) here (on the surface of the earth).

From the aforementioned, it is very clear, according to the Vedas geothermal energy alongwith solar insolation is the cause of GW. In other words we can say that the GW is the result of the permutations and combinations of geothermal energy and solar energy on the earth in addition to other factors.

Sources of Geothermal Energy

The Sea spreading centre, hotwater springs and volcanic activities on the lithosphere and hydrosphere of the earth contribute to the geothermal energy of the earth.

Volcanic activities on the hydrosphere of the earth: The most productive volcanic systems on Earth are hidden under water at an average depth of 8000 feet. Beneath the oceans a global system of mid-ocean ridges produces an estimated 75% of the annual output of magma. An estimated 3 cubic kilometers of lava is erupted. The magma and lava create the edges of new oceanic plates and supply heat and chemicals to some of the Earth’s most unusual and rare ecosystems.

If an estimate of 4,000 volcanoes per million square kilometers on the floor of the Pacific Ocean is extrapolated for all the oceans then there are more than a million submarine (underwater) volcanoes. According to Geologists, as many as 75,000 of these volcanoes rise over half a mile (1 kilometer) above the ocean floor.

Volcanic activities on the lithosphere of the Earth: There are around 550 active volcanoes of the world along with about 40,000 hot water springs and global heat flux emanating from the entire crust of the earth is contributing in global warming. Geothermal energy is plentiful. Temperatures increase below the Earth’s surface at a rate of about 30 °C per km in the first 10 km (roughly 90 °F per mile in the first 6 miles) below the surface. This internal heat of the Earth is an immense store of energy. In the upper 10 km of rock beneath the continent of United States, it amounts to 3.3 × 1025 joules, or about 6,000 times the energy contained in the world’s oil reserves. The natural escape of the Earth’s heat through its surface averages only 0.06 watt per square metre (0.006 watt per square foot).

Source of the solar energy:

The sun is the only source of solar energy on our earth. The surface of the Earth receives solar energy at the rate of approximately 1,000 watts per square metre. The sun is perpendicular to the earth at sea level on a clear day. As per another estimate the Earth receives 174 petawatts (PW) of incoming solar radiation (insolation) at the upper atmosphere. Approximately 30% is reflected back to space while the rest 70% i.e. 122 petawatts is absorbed by clouds, oceans and land masses.

Discussion

Causes of increase in global warming: IPCCC’s Projected Climate Model

Thus there is a basic flaw in the modern scientific view of the global warming as compared to the Vedic view. Modern scientists think that the sun is solely responsible for the GW. Whereas GW is contributed both by the heat of earth and sun.

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), found out in 2007, that global surface temperature of the earth increased by 0.74 ± 0.18 °C (1.33 ± 0.32 °F) during the 20th century. The temperature increases since the middle of the 20th century was attributed to increasing concentrations of green house gases. 80% of GW is attributed to CO2 and 20% to CFC emissions, etc., known as green house gases (GHG). Coal based power plants are indicated as the top contributor of GHGs, followed by the burning of fossil fuel in transport and deforestation.

The studies of IPCC also found that between 1970 to 2004, the emission of GHGs increased by 70%. So, a climate model was projected by IPCC based upon the increase in emission of of GHGs. Accordingly, if the current trend of emission of GHGs continue, the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 1.1 to 6.4 °C (2.0 to 11.5 °F) during the 21st century. Meteorologists predicts world temperature will rise between 2 and 4 degree C by 2030, unless we cut the amount of GHGs we produce. As per report of IPCC, if warming reaches 2 degrees Celsius, more than 70 percent of Earth’s coastlines will see sea-level rise greater than 0.66 feet (0.2 meters), resulting in increased coastal flooding, beach erosion, salinization of water supplies and other impacts on humans and ecological systems. Had the above sensational statements been true, by 2020 the coastal cities of Bombay, Chennai and Calcultta would have inundated, but this did not happen and proved the IPCC postulations to be wrong.

In fact, there is a basic flaw, as pointed above, in IPCC’s projected model of climate which counts the sun alone contributing to the global warming. Meteorologists commit further mistake when they indulge in GW predictions following IPCC projected model based upon this fundamental mistake. Had the modern scientists followed the Vedic model of climate holding the geothermal heat and insolation from sun equally responsible for GW, they would have been able to predict the global warming more precisely than before without creating panic by their sensational statements.

The Vedic Climate Model

In the Vedic climate model, both geothermal energy and solar energy are contributors to the phenomenon of global warming. So, when the global warming is calculated or predicted, alongwith the increase in the emission of GHGs, the increase in installations of solar panels, geothermal power plants and wind mills during the concerned period shall have to be taken also into consideration. As the solar panels would reduce the warming caused by solar insolations; geothermal power plants would reduce the GW caused by geothermal heat and and wind mills reduce warming caused by both the solar insolations and as geothermal heat, thus contribute to global cooling.

The data shows that in 2018 wind power capacity grew 9.6% to 591 gigawatts (GW), ealier in 2015 its capacity was 432 GW. If this trend of the growth of wind capacity continues, it will be 792.1 GW by the end of 2020 and 4,042 GW by end of 2050. Similarly we are informed that that geothermal power generation capacity is increasing at an annual growth rate of around 4.7%. and solar power generation capacity is increasing at the annual growth rate of 40-50%. So, the increase in the solar, geothermal and wind mill power generation capacities are reducing the global warming in proportionate to their growth.

IPCC’s predictions failed because its projected model of climate had no space for the global cooling contributed by growing wind mills, solar and geothermal power plants to harness the solar and geothermal energies. According to the Vedic model of climate, global warming can be estimated not only on the basis of increase in emission of GHGs, but also counting global cooling caused by the growing number of solar and geothermal power plants as well as wind mills on the various parts of the earth.

Are GHGs the real cause of increase in global warming?

Now we may use certain data available to us to verify IPCC’s hypothesis that green house gases are contributing to the global warming.

To verify this, we have taken certain data of the Sea Surface Temperature, as the global warming induced global climate change (GCC) also leaves its signatures on Sea Surface Temperature (SST). Due to GW, SST also rises. Had the human activities i.e. use of GHG been the sole cause of GW, there would have been abnormalities in SST proportionate to the human activities in the respective oceanic regions. But this is not found exactly to be so.

Here we would have a glimpse of the following picture of the warm water pool located in the West Pacific Ocean near Indonesia and Philippines group of Islands, we are surprised to see the contribution of geothermal energy in creation of this warm water pool. At same latitude the sea surface temperature varies like 24 (+50 C), 22 (+50 C), 20 (+50C), on account of variation in distance from the volcanoes of Indonesia and Philippines group of Islands.

Thus we can safely say that the the geothermal energy is also a factor that contributes to the global warming. The above data shows that the contribution of 550 active volcanoes of the world along with about 40,000 hot water springs and global heat flux emanating from the entire crust of the earth and volcanic activities under sea water is contributing its share to the total 150C temperature of the earth in global warming. This supports the Vedic model of climate, however, the IPCC projected model of climate, as pointed out above, has never taken the geothermal energy in consideration for its contribution to the global warming. Human activites or green house gases are contributing maximum to the pollution and to some extant to the global warming.

Geothermal energy is the cause of cyclones, earthquackes:

A major area in the basin of Pacific Ocean is known as the Ring of Fire (also known as the Rim of Fire or the Circum-Pacific belt), because it has 452 volcanoes (more than 75% of the world’s active and dormant volcanoes). Due to the excess of geothermal activity, this region experiences about 90% of the world’s earthquakes and about 81% of the world’s largest earthquakes. The Northeastern Pacific is the second most active basin and has the highest number of storms per unit area. The Northwest Pacific Ocean is the most active basin on the planet, accounting for one-third of all tropical cyclone activity. Annually, an average of 25.7 tropical cyclones in the basin acquire tropical storm strength or greater.

Solution to the challenge of GW

On the whole the issue of global warming is creating horror for the existence of life on the earth. As such immediate check or reduction of global warming is must for the survival of entire humankind on the globe. IPCC projected model of climate, predictions of which have proved a hoax, has also suggested many actions to check it. The modern solution of the GW reflects in the Kyoto Protocol which is aimed at stabilizing greenhouse gas concentration to prevent a “dangerous anthropogenic interference”. As of November 2009, 187 states had signed and ratified the protocol. Proposed responses to global warming include mitigation to reduce emissions, adaptation to the effects of global warming, and geo-engineering to remove greenhouse gases from the atmosphere.

However, the real solution to this global challenge seems to be with with the Vedic model of climate framed by the the Vedic seers in the days of yore. As such there is a need to explore more and more actions and means to observe a total control over the increasing warming in the light of Vedic model.

Accordidngly there is a need to harnessing the geothermal and solar energy more and more for the benefit of humanity. All the mantras quoted above substantiate this view. Following mantras of Atharvaveda is also noteworthy in this regard.

तानि कल्पद् ब्रह्मचारी सलिलस्य पृष्ठे तपो∙अतिष्ठत् तप्यमान समुद्रे।

स स्नातः बभ्रु पिंगलः पृथिव्यां बहु रोचते॥ अथर्ववेद, 1.5.26

tāni kalpad brahmachārī salilasya pṛṣṭhe tapo∙atiṣṭhat tapyamāna samudre,

sa snātaḥ babhru piṁgalaḥ pṛthivyāṁ bahu rochate.

[Meaning] (ब्रह्मचारी) Vedic scholar (तानि कल्पत् अतिष्ठत्) for harnessing geothermal energy surveys (तपः तप्यमानः समुद्रे)the hottest sea spreading centres as well as (सलिलस्य पृष्ठे) the surface of oceans. (स्नातः) Having graduated (बभ्रुः) with robust physique and (पिंगलः) magmatic complexion, (सः) he has become (बहु) highly (रोचते) glorified on (पृथिव्याम्) the planet.

Unfortunately, geothermal energy is not getting the same level of attention as solar energy, and it remains heavily underutilized. If the world were able to tap just a small portion of the earth’s heat, we could provide everyone with clean and safe energy for centuries and eradicate the fear of earthquakes, and cyclones. Current estimates of global potential for geothermal energy range from 35 gigawatts (GW) to 2,000 GW. However, simple technological improvements could greatly increase these projections.

Central America, in particular, is progressing quickly as several countries begin to develop previously untouched geothermal resources. Central America is located within the Pacific Ring of Fire, a volcanically active region that has excellent potential for geothermal electricity. Estimates for the geothermal potential of the region are as high as 11000 megawatts (MW). However, the region is harnessing only 506 MW of this energy and is still heavily dependent on expensive imported fossil fuels.

El Salvador, known as the ‘land of volcanoes’, is the largest producer of geothermal electricity in the region with 204 MW of production. With approximately 24 percent of its total electricity need is coming from geothermal resources, El Salvador is a world leader in the development of geothermal power. Moreover, the country received a US $ 2 million grant form the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB) in May to establish a geothermal training center for Latin America and the Caribbean. As part of this initiative, the international training center will offer technical courses in geothermal energy development at la Universidad de El Salvador.

India needs to do

India has lot of potential of geothermal energy in addition to solar energy. 135 kilometres to the northeast of Port Blair, Barren Island is situated at the intersection of the seismically active Indian and Burmese plates and is 1.8 million years old and is home to the only active volcano in the Indian subcontinent. On this Island volcano eruptions take place at frequent intervals.

Indian Govt. has no provision of electricity in Andaman Nicobar Islands. We are meeting electricity requirements in the Islands with the help of generators running on fossil fuels which are very costly. Indian Govt. can produce electricity from this Barren Island volcano and installing wind mills around the coastal areas of Islands, Odisha, Andhrapradesh and Tamilnadu. It will help us serve two purposes 1. We shall be able to meet with the requirements of electricity of in these areas. 2. This will also help reduce the Bay of Bengal Sea Surface Temperature which will ultimately check the growth of earthquakes, tsunamis, volcanism, devastating cyclones and hurricanes in the Andaman Nicobar Islands, coastal areas of Odisha, Andhrapradesh and Tamilnadu. In addition, India has 350 hot water springs. They can also be exploited for electricity generation. This will also help meet the requirement of electricty in those areas and help reduce the global warming.

Conclusion

As discused above geothermal energy also contribute to some extent in the global surface temperature, where as the current global warming is only .8 degree C. In case we succeed in installing geothermal power plants on all of the active volcanoes of the world the reduction in gobal temperature to the tune of at least 10 C can be achieved in the coming 5 years. Surprisingly, the so-called problem of global warming can be turned to global cooling (ice age). ‘The inconvenient truth’ can be converted into ‘the convenient truth’. Fortunately in the coming days the number of ever increasing wind-mills, solar panels and the substitution of fossil fuel run automobiles with electrical vehicles will also add to the campaign of global cooling. The International Commision of Atmospheric Electricty are also making frentic efforts to provide free and clean electricity to the entire population of the planet. Needless to say the maximum chunk of Vedic mantras (about 3000) are dedicated to this holy cause under the subject of Indra. Inspite of great hue and cry raised by IPCC reports the problem of global warming is not out of our control. We still can solve it, if we dare to act. Not only for our brothers and sisters in India, the whole world will benefit.

References

The Atharvaveda, Edited and Translated in English Devi Chand, Munshi Ram Manoharlal, Delhi, 1980 .
The Ṛgveda Saṅhitā, Edited by Ravi Prakash Arya, Parimal Publications, Delhi, 2002 .
IPCC’s report of 2007.
धरती को जल प्रलय से बचाने का सुगम एवं सही उपाय’, सूर्यप्रकाश कपूर द्वारा ‘विश्व की प्रगति में विज्ञान तथा प्रौद्योगिकी का योगदान‘ विषय पर रक्षा अनुसंधान एवं विकास संगठन, रक्षा मन्त्रालय मेटकाफ हाउस, दिल्ली द्वारा आयेजित कान्फ्रेस में पठित एवं ‘समकालील वैज्ञानिक अनुसंधान’ के पेज न0 2002-206 पर प्रकाशित, 2013.
Website of International commission on Atmospheric Electricty.

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Charge Potential Variation on the Earth during Harmattan Dust Haze and The Dynamics of Dust Particles

Bishnu Charanarbinda Mohanty — Tue, 26 Dec 2023 13:54:16 +0000

Abstract

The occurrence of Harmattan dust haze during the dry seasons (mid-December to mid-March) and the manner of variation of electric potential gradient in atmosphere at ground level during the dust haze have been discussed. No answer is available for a satisfactory analysis of these phenomena. Once again the concept that the solar radiation carries non-electric charge is seen to play an important role in occurrence of this event. The new explanation provides a complete answer to the event.

Key words: Harmattan dust haze, air-earth potential gradient, field reversal, earth current

Most part of West Africa experiences the dust haze during December to March, the effect being greatest during the months of January and February. The dust haze is formed as a result of the wind blowing from Sahara and carrying fine particles of dust in it.

Measurement record during the harmattan period

It is interesting to note that the dust particles remain in suspension for a long period, often for several days. The dust particles in the atmosphere reduce the visibility to less than a mile. Often the height of the dust haze is in excess of 10,000 feet. During the dust haze, pronounced variations of electric field at ground level are distinctly noticed.

The period of dust haze coincides with the dry season with very low relative humidity1. The values of relative humidity at 7 AM and 4 PM fall below 20% and 10% respectively for temperatures of about 700F and 900F. The size of the particles ranges from 0.1 to 0.5 microns with a chemical composition, silica 50%, alumina 10%, lime 5%, ferrite 4% and magnesia 2% having small quantities of potash, soda and titanium oxide.

Harmattan effect during december 1966 to 1967

During mid-December 1966, it was recorded that the relative humidity had fallen to about 30% and 15% at 7 AM and 4 PM respectively. By this time the Harmattan dust haze made its occasional appearance. The intensity of the effects increased as the humidity continued to decrease during the months of January and February. The relative humidity fell below 10% and 5% at 7 AM and 4 PM respectively when the effect was the greatest. Fig.1 shows these variations during the Harmattan period. During normal fair-weather condition there was a positive electric field of about 60 V/m from midnight to noon with no predictable variation during this period.

From noon onwards the field increased, reaching a maximum of about 100 V/m at about 20 hrs. and then decreasing to a lower value by midnight. When the effect of Harmattan made itself evident, there was a remarkable change of field in the early morning with the effect persisting throughout the day but, reverting to normal condition by evening. Fig.2 shows the actual variation of potential gradient in three particular days, having no Harmattan effect, a mild Harmattan effect and drastic Harmattan effect. During most of the period, mid-December to mid-March, the field reversal was measured in the day time. It was consistent in making its appearance between 7 and 9 AM in the morning, being generally earlier persisting longer when the effect was greatest. There was no predictable effect of the Harmattan form the nature of field variation during the remainder of the day. The value after midnight was still reasonably constant, although the value varied during the period of measurement from about 20 V/m to 100 V/m. The rate of change of field from this value to large negative field was surprisingly rapid. The field changed from its normal value to its field reversal condition within 30 minutes, and sometimes within 10 minutes, with little prier indication that a change was imminent. There were some cases when this change was preceded by a rise of field by about 50 %, but this was not predictable. During the large negative field condition, considerable fluctuation in the field occurred. The maximum field recorded during this period of measurement was -5000 V/m. For even the severest case, the field recovered to its normal value by 19.0 hours, and then had a similar variation with time up to midnight as it happens for the field in fair weather condition, reaching a maximum value at about 20.0 hours and decreasing thereafter to midnight. The measurement of current shows that an increase in magnitude, and a change of polarity of the air-earth current accompanies the field reversal and intensification.

It is known [1] that, during the Harmattan period, there is a marked surface inversion with winds calm or gentle during the night, and that dust tend to settle from the lower layers of the atmosphere, and probably also becomes concentrated in the inversion layer. After sunrise convective turbulence begins to mix the layers of air, raising the dust from the ground and bringing it down from the inversion layer. The dust then becomes more evenly distributed through the lower atmosphere during the day.

The initiation of the effect soon after the sunrise suggests that the solar radiation is an effective agent in producing the field reversal. According to present scientific analysis, the solar radiation is effective in two ways. It can produce ions by photo-ionisation and it can cause movement of air due to heating of the surface of the Earth. This latter effect could also be ion producing due to frictional effects between the various constituents in the dust-laden atmosphere. It is obvious that ion production mechanism itself is not sufficient, since ions are produced in pairs. Some mechanism of charge separation is essential. It may be that the charging mechanism occurs at some remote place and that negative ions alone are incident on the area of measurement, but this is not likely.

Some questions are yet to be answered

What is the dust charging mechanism?
Is it effectively a dipole layer with charge separation giving the upper layers a positive charge and the lower layers a negative charge?
Why does the effect start with such dramatic swiftness at a fairly predictable time in the morning?
What is the effective current path during the field reversal period?
is it from one part of the surface to another or is there a mechanism whereby the upper atmosphere can receive positive charge?

A new analysis for the charge activity during the harmattan

The surface of the Earth and its atmosphere can no more be considered charge neutral. The surface of the Earth remains at a lower potential compared to the atmosphere above in fair weather condition. The electric field in the lower atmosphere is considered positive if the potential increases with height. During the Harmattan dust haze the earth current, air-earth current and the electric field pattern undergo drastic change as discussed above. It has been discussed under the earth current topic that the surface of the Earth gains positive charge by receiving solar radiation and release negative charge while radiating to open sky. The exact mechanism of electrical charging in micro domain by radiation is different from the photoelectric effect.

In this Chapter, like the analysis of the earth current, we would analyse the Harmattan phenomena by assuming the thermal and electrical charging by radiation.The surface of the Earth becomes positively charged (both thermal and electrical) on receiving solar radiation. Thus, the electric charge potential of the surface increase in the day side part of the Earth due to solar radiation. However, it does not continuously build up to higher and a higher value since the charge easily gets conducted to the dark side of the Earth by conduction through the surface materials (land and sea). The surface potential of the Earth in the dark side always loses charge by releasing terrestrial radiation. The conductivity of the surface soil of the Earth changes with the change of moisture content in the soil, temperature and alkalinity of the soil etc.. When the moisture content of the soil drops to very low value corresponding to less than 10% relative humidity at 700 F, the electrical resistance of the soil increases (behaves like insulator) and the charge conduction is hindered. Under such a condition the surface charge state of the Earth increases with continuous inflow of solar radiation. Soon after the morning the positive potential gradient is gradually reduced and the electric field becomes zero at about 8AM. Thereafter the field proceeds in a negative direction and reaching a value of about 5000V/m and sometimes even higher at about 10 AM. Normally, one would expect the negative potential gradient to go up towards noon with increasing positive charge by stronger solar radiation. But, the soil being a semiconductor, starts conducting electrical charge due to rise in temperature. At some favourable temperature, massive transition of electrons to conduction band takes place. Such a condition appears after about 10AM, and the surface potential of the Earth decreases at a faster rate due to conduction of electrons than the rate of charging due to solar radiation. After 12 noon, the ground temperature reaches a high value which is above the transition temperature. Thus, the conductivity decreases due to rapid collisition process as it happens for all semiconductors. This makes the surface potential to increase which increases the negative potential gradient in the lower atmosphere at ground level. After 2PM the solar radiation intensity decreases gradually with time and the surface potential decreases due to weaker radiation and continuous conduction of electron to other parts of the Earth (earth current). This makes the potential gradient to be 0 in air at ground level. After evening, the surface potential of the Earth decreases due to release of terrestrial thermal radiation, ultimately reaching a value close to that prevailing under fair weather condition some time at about 8PM.

During mid-December when the relative humidity falls to about 15% at 7AM occasional appearance of mild Hermattan effect are seen. In these cases the humidity being high, fluctuations in the negative potential gradient in air at ground level are seen. This effect must have been caused due to the fluctuation in the surface potential of the Earth which in turn must have been caused due to several transitions in conductivity of the soil having relatively high moisture content.

In the above consideration of the electric field variation, we have only taken the conductivity change of the soil. However, it is also required to consider the effect of the change of electrical conductivity of the air for any possible charge conduction into the atmosphere.

When the positive charge potential of the surface soil of the Earth increases, the constituent sand particles at similar electric and thermal potential experience repulsion from the surface. The finer particles having higher surface to volume ratio and hence having higher charge to mass ratio easily overcomes the gravitational attraction due to stronger charge repulsion. This makes the fine sand particles to move upwards forming the dust haze. The maximum height that any particle can attain depends on the prevailing charge state of the surface of the Earth and the charge to mass ratio of the particle. The fine dust particles do not settle down on the Earth by gravity because they are repelled by stronger repulsive thermal and electrical charge forces. The particles cannot go further up by the charge repulsion force because beyond a distance they are attracted more strongly by gravity. The floating sand particles can move to different height only when there is a change in the charge state of the particle or the charge state of the surface of the Earth or both.

Though we notice different types of charge field gradients at different altitude, in reality, the atmosphere of the Earth has a highly polarised shell, sub-shell, sub-sub-shell… structure as a global feature under fair weather condition [2]. And further, the electrically charged shell, sub-shell structure has a pattern with alternate change of polarity. The global polarised structure loses its significance at lower atmosphere during the day time part of the Hermattan dust haze when the natural charge potential of the surface of the Earth is disturbed from its normal fair-weather values. Thus, when the fairweather condition is restored at night, the charged dust particles in the atmosphere experience a different type of electric field interaction resulting from the polarised shell structure. This makes the dust particles to settle in inversion layers.

This article is a part of the original work published in the book “Planetary electrodynamics-II”, Volume-2 of the series “Dynamics of universe; interplay of matter, space and charge”, 2000 by the same author.

References

Harris, D. J.`Atmospheric Electric Field Measurements During the Harmattan Dust Haze in North Nigeria’Proceedings of Conference on Planetary Electrodynamics’ Vol. 1, Chapter 1-4, p 39, 19, Ed. Coroniti and J. Hughes, Gordon and Beach Science Pub. 1, New York, 1969.
Mohanty, B.C. Dynamic Universe- Interplay of Matter, Space and Charge Vol. I,` PLANETARY ELECTRODYNAMICS- I’, Published by Samanta Chandra Sekhar Smurti Parisad, 1998.

The post Charge Potential Variation on the Earth during Harmattan Dust Haze and The Dynamics of Dust Particles appeared first on Institute of Philosophy of Nature.

Analysis of Earth Current And The Nature of Variation of Electric Potential of The Earth

Bishnu Charanarbinda Mohanty — Mon, 25 Dec 2023 15:05:35 +0000

Abstract

The nature of earth current and its manner of systematic change has been well recorded. The earth current pattern in fair weather condition measured at several points on the surface of the Earth reveals its global phenomena having bearing with solar events, lunar cycles etc.. The most conspicuous feature of all hodographs prepared in fair-weather condition is that the electric potential gradient vector undergoes a fluctuation with twice maximum and twice minimum values. No plausible explanation is available for many of these observed events, ultimately leaving them as mystery. The author of this book made an unconventional approach by introducing a non-electric form of charge to radiation particles. This new concept, besides supplementing the dynamics of celestial bodies, is also found to provide a satisfactory theory for the complete analysis of earth current discussed in this article. This new concept of photon having a thermal charge and its conversion to electrical charge in different domain, under favourable condition provides a new scope of understanding of light without duality.

Key words: earth current, vertical earth current, solar diurnal variation, lunar diurnal variation

Everywhere on the surface of the earth, a kind of strange electric current is seen to flow as a natural phenomenon. The flow of electric current is necessarily caused by a potential difference. Thus, there is a definite pattern of potential structure on the surface of the Earth formed by some energetic action which produces the earth current.

Earth current was first discovered soon after the first commercial telegraph came into operation when the communication message was found to have been interfered by some unknown current in the Earth. Subsequently it was confirmed by measurement that there is always a charge flow within the surface matter of the Earth. Occasionally this earth current comes in a surge with usually intense current values which do not appear to have any bearing on the weather and is rightly known as the earth current storms. At all other times, except the storm periods which usually lasts for short duration, the earth current has a definite slow changing pattern and the same is known as calm or quiet earth current. Though, in general the term earth current refers to a flow of electric charge anywhere on the surface of the Earth. The flow of charge on the profiles of mountains being nearly vertical has appropriately a specific terminology of vertical Earth current. Electric current flows in the Earth from all sides of a mountain towards the top. Proper analysis of the earth current gives a clear picture of the charge potential of the surface of the Earth.

We have seen that charge potential difference on the surface of the Earth, caused by solar radiation gives rise to different charge forces among the celestial bodies which in turn controls the dynamics of celestial bodies. Thus, it may be useful to consider the same mechanism for the electrical charging of the Earth by solar radiation and verify the concept if it agrees to justify the Earth current phenomenon.

Nature of the earth current

The earth current phenomenon has bearings with the changes in geomagnetism, disturbances in ionosphere, occurrences of solarflares, polar lights and periodic variations of the sunspot number etc.. The nature of the earth current and the manner of variation responding to the above parameters are dealt in reference 1 under terrestrial electricity. Some important features only are discussed below.

Earth current storms

While some of the disturbances in the earth current occur more prominently in polar region, the others happen everywhere in the Earth and at the same time. Studies on earth current and geomagnetism reveals that there is a similar correspondence between the two events. Both the events are associated with the occurrence of auroras and high sunspot number. The storms often repeat after 27 days which is the period of rotation of the Sun.

Solar diurnal variations

In quiet or calm days, the earth current change in a fairly regular manner during 24 hours of the day. Fig.1 shows a record of the Northerly and Easterly potential gradients of the earth current in successive quiet days at Tucson, Ariz… It is interesting to note here that both components of potential gradient of earth current have two principal maxima and two principal minima.

Seasonal changes also occur in diurnal variation. The changes in Earth current are described in the hodograph of the potential gradient vector (Fig.2 ). It may be seen from the hodograph that during the hours of daylight, the gradient is much larger and changes direction rapidly as compared to that of night. The hodographs differ considerably from one place to another. However, all of them have nearly elongated shape like the one shown in Fig.2. Even though the hodograph in some cases is close to the major axis, the current changes to opposite direction usually twice every day. Almost all observations made along the Atlantic coast of the United States show that when the electric current flows from sea to the land area, their direction is nearly perpendicular to the coast line. The amplitude of earth current increases with the increase of sunspot number but the shape of the hodograph remains unchanged. The hodographs are seen to be larger during spring to autumn as compared to winter and in some months, changes its shape.

Lunar diurnal variation

Because of the difference in the length of lunar day and the solar day, it is possible to separate the lunar component of the earth current variation. By doing so it is found that there is a lunar diurnal variation of double period but having the amplitude of only one fifth the solar diurnal variations. A similar diurnal variation of geomagnetism is also seen corresponding to the lunar day.

State of understanding of the earth current

Most facts of earth current is an observationally recorded fact without explanation. We are yet to establish a theory that explains the exact nature of earth current in a complete manner. As regards the earth current phenomena in quiet-days, many questions remain to be answered. Some such questions are:

Why the world-wide system of electric eddies is fixed with respect to the Sun?
Why the amplitude of earth current is more during the day?
Why the shape of the hodograph changes with season?
Why should it vary with size and number of sunspot?
Why should it change with lunar day?
Why should there be a vertical earth current for all mountains?

Towards a possible mechanism for earth current

The fact that we understand very little about the cause of earth current, breeds doubt in our mind about the basic theories on charge separation in micro and macro domains. Due to the limitation faced in conventional analysis of earth current, this author has made an unconventional approach for a better answer.

It is well known that in fair-weather condition, the surface of the Earth always remains at a negative potential with respect to the atmosphere above. At the same time, it is also recorded that there is a continuous flow of positive charge from air to the Earth (i.e. the negative charge from the Earth to air) in fair weather condition. This kind of charge flow clearly indicates that there is a definite global process of electrical charging and discharging of the surface of the Earth. Variations in the degree of above charging and discharging processes from one location to another develop a potential difference that causes the earth current. As on today, the exact process by which the surface of the Earth is negatively charged is not known. Analysis of the global earth current pattern reveals that the intensity of the incoming radiation (predominantly solar radiation) and the outgoing terrestrial radiation is of vital importance in understanding the mechanism of electrical charging of the surface of the Earth.

It looks mysterious, why the negative charge of the surface of the Earth does not get neutralised with constant inflow of positive charges from the atmosphere. Perhaps, the mechanism of the return flow of charge from Earth to air takes place, in disguise, through particles carrying some non-electric form of charge. And further these new forms of charges have the scope of converting to electrical charge in matter under favourable condition. The solar radiation entering the surface and the terrestrial radiation leaving the surface has a good scope of changing the charge state of the surface of the Earth. For visualisation of this new concept, the author would like to discuss the water cycle of the planet which has a similarity with the charge cycle.

The surface of the Earth contains some definite quantity of water. During rain, drops of water always fall from air to the Earth. The rainy season, however, is always present in some parts of the world. Thus, one may find that there is always an inflow of liquid water from air to Earth. Suppose, we understand water only in its liquid state and do not know that water vapour is another form of water in a different state. With this background knowledge, it is quite natural for anyone to wonder why the water level on the surface of the Earth is not rising with continuous addition of rain water. This kind of thinking has a similarity to the thought why the negative charge state of the surface of the Earth is not neutralised with continuous flow of positive charge from air to the Earth. We, however, know that water vapour is a different form of water and therefore we do not consider the flow of water alone while analysing the water cycle. We consider both water and the water vapour flow (two phase flow) to take part in the water cycle of the Earth. Hence, the amount of water entering the Earth in the form of rain water is nearly the same as the amount of water leaving the Earth in the form of water vapour. This makes clear as to why the level of water on the surface of the Earth is nearly constant.

Both water and water vapour have mass. The density of liquid water is less than the density of a single molecule of water due to the intermolecular gap in water. The rain drop is an integral body of water molecules. But in water vapour, the water molecules are free without any mutual bonding. Thus, in vapour phase, the molecules are free to move independently whereas in water drop the molecules move in an integral manner resulting the motion of the drop. The acceleration due to gravity is therefore expected to act equally in both systems (the free molecule in water vapour and the water drop). But we notice that water drops always fall down whereas the molecules in water vapour normally go up. We, however, have a different consideration for the action of gravity in gas or vapour to understand the phenomena. In a crude analysis, one might fail to perceive the presence of mass in molecules of water vapour from the very nature of its free movement ignoring gravity. He might then wonder how the mass of the Earth remains constant in spite of continuous addition of mass through the rain drops. Today we understand the water cycle mechanism well and it is no more a wonder to us.

From the above analysis, one might hope to understand the stable negative charge state of the Earth by understanding the charge cycle of the Earth while drawing analogy to water cycle.

From common sense analogy, one might assume that radiation particles in very very fine domain may carry tinny positive electric charge (in different form) from the surface of the Earth to the atmosphere to make a balance of the charge cycle. Further, these tinny charges would not sense the electric field of the Earth due to their very short-range nature of interaction. The author has already discussed these new kind charges earlier as the thermal charge. This is something like the molecules of vapour having mass been moving against gravity. Such tinny charges present in the out-going terrestrial radiation transform to electrical charge in atoms and molecules present in the atmosphere by typical charge condensation which then, respond to electric field of the Earth causing air earth current similar to the concept of water cycle. Thus, to avoid confusion, the non-electric charges present in photon may be called light charge or thermal charge depending on their wave length. The detail of the new charge and their interaction is discussed by the author in Vol. III of this series of publication.

From the very nature of the earth current pattern it may be seen that the Sun is primarily responsible for causing a systematic electric current system in the Earth. Besides the gravitational attraction, the interaction through solar radiation and the effect of solar wind, the Sun being an electrically positively charged body, [2] has the ability to cause charge polarisation on the negatively charged surface of the Earth. The free electrons and ions on the surface of the Earth are not completely free for mobility due to their attachment with different molecules. The bond strength of the attachment varies from case to case. Some charge particles are relatively freer while the others may be having a relatively stronger attachment. While the Earth rotates with respect to the Sun, the free electrons in the crust of the Earth remain oriented towards the Sun due to the charge attraction from the Sun. This results a polarised charge structure on the surface of the Earth orienting in the direction of the Sun [3]. Thus, the free negative charges make a systematic relative motion with respect to the surface of the earth. The current pattern due to the above polarisation effect is not exactly symmetrical about the line joining the Sun and the Earth because of wide variation of electrical conductivity of different surface matter of the Earth. The concentration of electron by polarisation has a limit because, the local repulsive forces from similar charges (electrons) tries to push them apart. The above charge polarisation effect due to the Sun and the fixed orientation of the charge structure of the Earth in the direction of the Sun, provides a part answer to the nature of worldwide system of the Earth current fixed with respect to the Sun. The charge density structure in ionospheric shells and the auroras exhibiting identical orientation phenomena with respect to the Sun has been analysed earlier.

Besides the polarisation effect discussed above, the solar radiation plays an important role in developing a positively charged surface. Solar radiation falling on the relatively negatively charged surface of the Earth neutralises the negative electric charge partly and therefore the day side surface becomes electrically positively charged with respect to the surface in the night side. Similarly, when the Earth cools down at night by radiating to open sky it loses the positive charge. This assumption is in contrary to the present concept that photons do not carry charge. Perhaps this apparent contradiction is a blessing in disguise as it gives rise to a new non-electric charge concept for photons. Our experimental evidence is that photon does not carry electric charge as it is not deflected in the electromagnetic field. Such experiments have a little say whether photons have any other forms of charge which do not interact with electric charge. We may redefine photon as a particle carrying thermal charge instead of associating a wave. The new definition of photon for light as a particle carrying thermal charge is a feasible reality and is superior to ordinary particle of light without charge for explaining the phenomena of light. The additional thermal charge property makes the new particle theory of light richer to compete with the wave theory of light where the role of wave length is played by the temperature potential of the thermal charge. The author is of the opinion that with this new concept of light (electromagnetic radiation), a new theory would be able to remove the prevailing duality of light. Thus, it may be interesting to realise how the non-electric charge in photon helps to understand the dynamics of celestial bodies, different charge phenomena in the atmosphere of the Earth, the phenomena of earth current and finally different phenomena of light.

The understanding of this new concept is deeply connected with the understanding of the significance of electric charge and other charges. According to this concept, all charges appear through different manifestation of matter and space. It is still interesting to learn how the signature of electric charge (tiny electric charge) in non-electric form, present in radiation particles give rise to formation of electric charge through charge condensation (modification of matter space manifestation). The author is constrained to restrict the continuation of this discussion on micro physics as the present volume has a different objective. Thus, for the analysis of topics of this volume, it may be conjectured that thermal radiation from a high temperature body when get absorbed in a low temperature body, increases the thermal charge state of the low temperature body and further it can increase the electric charge state of the body and conversely a body loses both thermal and electrical charge by radiating out. It is feasible to have conversion of one class of charge to another as basically all charges in the new concept are different manifestations of matter and space in different domains. The electric currents in the surface of the Earth when analysed by this new concept provide a complete answer to the earth current phenomena and therefore establishes faith on this new hypothesis.

Analysis of earth current – a new concept

The orientation of celestial bodies surrounding the Earth changes in a cyclic manner due to the periodic motions of the celestial bodies. The change of orientation of the Sun and the Moon with respect to the Earth produces a change in the extent of radiation received at different location on the surface of the Earth. Hence, the surface charge state of the Earth undergoes a cyclic change. The local surface charge state of the Earth increases from its terrestrial average value by receiving solar radiation. Since the Earth has a spherical shape, at any given instant only one hemisphere receives solar radiation. The intensity of solar radiation varies from one location to another depending on the effective solid angle subtended at the Sun by unit area on the surface of Earth. The charge state of the surface of the Earth at its far end from the Sun (corresponding to night), loses the positive charge, acquired during day time through the terrestrial radiation to open sky and becomes negatively charged with respect to the surface at the day time. Thus the rotation and revolution of the Earth causes a fluctuation of the surface charge state (thermal and electric charge potential) of the earth. The potential gradient formed by the above systematic potential fluctuation causes a definite pattern of Earth current. The direction and magnitude are further modified while current follows through the path of least resistance.

A hypothetical charge potential structure of the surface of the Earth having uniformly same electrical conductivity is shown in Fig.3. But in reality, the electrical conductivity is not same everywhere. About three fourth of the surface of the Earth is covered by sea water which is a better conductor of electricity. The land mass is a semiconducting material with relatively low conductivity and varies with moisture content. Broadly, the surface materials of the Earth can be classified into two types viz. semiconducting (land) and conducting (sea). The specific nature of distribution of land and sea on the surface of the Earth modulates the earth current pattern to a great extent.

The sun facing hemisphere of the Earth receives solar radiation, thus it remains at a higher charge potential than the dark hemisphere. The land surfaces on the Earth are discontinuous (continental land masses) whereas the seas of the Earth though named differently have a single continuous body. Further, the sea water being a better conductor of electricity it conducts electric charge easily from the Sun facing sea to the entire water body of the Earth. This makes the charge potential of the continental land masses to remain always higher than that of the sea in the Sun facing side of the Earth.. On the other hand, in the dark side of the Earth, the sea remains at a higher electric potential than the continental land. This nature of potential structure develops a general current system where during the day, the electric current is directed from land to sea and during the night the current is directed from the sea to the land. In both day as well as night the direction of current has to be normal to the land-sea interface (i.e. the coast line). The potential gradient from land to sea during the day is obviously higher than the potential gradient between sea and the land at night. This fact is typically well revealed in the Earth current hodograph as the most general phenomenon. From the hodograph, it is clearly seen that the Earth current magnitude undergoes a periodic fluctuation with having twice maximum and twice minimum during the 24 hrs. day. The effect of solar radiation causing a positive electric potential on the surface of the Earth has been discussed. Further, it has been made clear how the sea and land on the surface of the Earth plays an important role in controlling the direction and the magnitude of earth current. Thus, it is natural to think that the above fluctuation of the magnitude of earth current exhibiting twice maximum and twice minimum, has its answer from the nature of variation of the ratio of the land area and the sea area exposed to sunlight during different hours of the day. A schematic picture showing the variation of land-sea area ratio during complete rotation of the Earth is presented in Fig.4.

To understand the effect of land and sea distribution on the Earth current, we may now examine different typical cases resulting from specific orientation of the surface of the Earth towards the Sun. Suppose at any given instant the sea (say the Atlantic Ocean) orient towards the Sun. In this orientation the sea surface receives more solar radiation than the land surface. The charge potential of Atlantic Ocean will reach a maximum and due to good charge conductivity of sea water the charge potential of the entire sea will increase to a maximum value. Once again when the Pacific Ocean faces the sun, the charge potential of the entire sea will have another maximum value. On the other hand, when the American continental land is exposed to the sun light the charge potential of the sea as a whole fall to a minimum value. And again, when the rest of the continents (Asia, Africa, Europe, Japan and Australia etc.) as one integrated land surface face the Sun, the sea as a whole also reaches another minimum potential. The magnitude of Earth current at any location and time being a function of potential difference between the said location and the nearest sea, exhibits identical fluctuation in the magnitude of the earth current during the hours of the day. The characteristic spread of the sea along the longitude having twice maximum and twice minimum rightly explains the world-wide nature of variation of the earth current having twice maximum and twice minimum as revealed in the earth current hodograph.

The shape of the Earth and its motions allows the equatorial zone to receive more solar radiation than the polar zones. This makes the equatorial zone to remain at a higher potential than the polar zones. Due to this potential difference, charge flow also takes place from equatorial zone towards North and South poles. The orientation of the axis of the Earth with respect to the Sun changes with time. During summer in the Northern hemisphere, the North Pole comes closer to the Sun where the solar radiations are more normal to the surface and the radiation intensity in Northern hemisphere increases. In the similar manner during the summer in the Southern hemisphere, the intensity of solar radiation increases in Southern hemisphere. The changes in the intensity of solar radiation during the change of season causes a periodic change in the potential structure and hence produces a corresponding change in the earth current pattern responding to the season change.

The Earth current can be easily correlated to the terrestrial disturbances in the ionosphere such as ring currents, current across ionospheric layers (auroras), change in geomagnetism, occurrence of polar lights, and solar disturbances like solar flare, sunspot number etc.. Since all the above phenomena is primarily a function of solar radiation, the fluctuation in solar radiation during the solar flare, variation in sunspot number etc. contribute to simultaneous changes in the above electrodynamics features. The cause of disturbance being same for all the above cases, the electrical phenomena is bound to bear a correlation. While observing any two simultaneous events occurring in the atmosphere and on the surface of the Earth it may not be always proper to attribute the cause of one to the other because, there could be an extraneous cause common to both the observed events.

The earth current pattern also responds to lunar cycle. The size of the Moon is small compared to the planets in the solar system, but due to closer proximity of the Earth, the Moon has a significant effect on the earth current. The average charge state of the Moon is negative with respect to the Earth. But due to slow rotation of the Moon with respect to the Sun, there is a great difference in the charge states of the bright and dark surfaces of the Moon. Due to long time exposure to Sun light, the bright surface of the Moon remains at a higher potential than the average charge state of the surface of the Moon and the Earth. The dark surface of the Moon remains at a lower potential than that of the bright surface. Like the effect of the Sun, the Moon also produces a significant charge polarisation on the surface of the Earth. It further influences the charge state of the surface of the Earth by its characteristic reflection of the Sun light and the low temperature thermal radiation from the dark side. The reflected Sun light from the Moon falling on the surface of the Earth increases its charge potential and the low temperature thermal radiation falling on the surface of the Earth lowers the charge state of the surface of the Earth. In other words, the surface of the Earth, facing the waxing moon get positively charged and when it faces the waning moon gets negatively charged due to typical radiation from the Moon. The waxing and the waning phases of the Moon take place in a periodic manner. Therefore, the Earth current has a distinct component attributable to the effect of the Moon. Due to the effect of the waxing Moon and the waning Moon, the lunar influence on the Earth current have a variation of double period as expected. The intensity of radiation from Moon being weaker, the lunar component of the Earth current is weaker (one fifth the solar component). The tidal effect on sea water can be better analysed by the effect of charge variation on the surface of the Earth due to the Moon.

The analysis of the vertical Earth current is different from the horizontal earth current discussed above. The topographical contour has a significant feature in the terrestrial thermal radiation. The charge loss is more for mountains than the planes due to large surface area per unit solid angle. The charge loss due to thermal radiation is further increased by loss of positive charge from sharp mountain peaks due to corona discharge. Due to greater loss of positive charge by thermal radiation and corona discharge at mountain tops, a constant charge flow takes place from the base of the mountain to the top of the mountain. This causes the vertical Earth current.

References

Terrestrial Electricity, Encyclopedia of Science & Technology, Vol. 13 (1971) p 524, Mcgraw-Hill Inc. New York
Mohanty, B.C., DYNAMICS OF UNIVERSE-Interplay of Matter, Space and Charge, Vol. I `PLANETARY ELECTRODYNAMICS- I’ Pub. Samanta Chandra Sekhar Smruti Parisad, Bhubaneswar; 1998. p 53
Ibid, p73, 91

The post Analysis of Earth Current And The Nature of Variation of Electric Potential of The Earth appeared first on Institute of Philosophy of Nature.

The Coma of Comets and The New Interpretation of The Extranuclear Structure of The Solar System

Bishnu Charanarbinda Mohanty — Mon, 25 Dec 2023 14:58:19 +0000

Abstract

The coma structure of a comet is believed to have been formed due to the outburst taking place on the surface of its nucleus. According to this concept, the sequential outbursts occurring on the surface of the comet generate streams of gases with dust which when expand develop the coma structure. This kind of understanding associated with many doubts such as: i) why the outburst occurs on surface of the nucleus when it crosses a planetary orbit? ii) Why the freely expanding gases and dust particles remain associated to the nucleus of the comet in a near spherical pattern inspite of extreme high velocity of the nucleus? iii) Why the powerful solar wind that forms the long ion tail instantaneously fail to deform the coma structure? iv) Is the coma structure bonded to the nucleus by some kind of force-field interaction? This article presents the mechanism of formation of coma structure where, over excitation of coma gives rise to the formation of a jet like structure in the nucleus considered different from the existing understanding. The typical structure of the coma can be better understood from the new shell model which describes the shells, sub-shells surrounding a celestial body [1]. Unlike other celestial bodies, the comets and the extra nuclear shell constituents are in excited states and emit radiations. Thus, the ultraviolet picture of Halley’s Comet (Fig.1) shows its own coma structure prominently. The shell structure of the coma undergoes fluctuations responding to a quantum energy change interaction when the comet crosses the shell structure of the solar system [2]. When, the formation of the shell structure in the coma is due to a universal phenomenon that governs the stability of extra nuclear structure surrounding a celestial body, and then the spacings in the shell structure must also satisfy the general correlation. The findings of this article aim at establishing the discrete shell spacing correlation as suggested earlier [1] [2].

Key words: coma of comets, comets, Halley’s Comet

Introduction

Comets have large spherical envelopes of glowing cloud known as coma. This visible coma is as large as 100,000 km in diameter and a surrounding halo of hydrogen atoms extending to 10 times this distance. Different gases such as H₂O, C₂, C₃, CH, CN, CO, N₂, H₂, CO₂, NH₃ etc. have been identified in the coma of comets from the spectroscopic studies. Dust particles in the range of 10^-17 to 10^-6 gram are also found to be present in the coma. The coma is highly structured with the above constituents. From the very nature of the structural features, the coma appears to be an integral part of the comet. But the gravitational field strength of the nucleus in the region of coma is too weak to organise a coma structure similar to the atmospheric structure of a planet. This is more so as the coma extends to very large distance where it could not have a significant gravity field due to the small mass of the comet.

Present understanding

The existing scientific explanation is that, the coma constituents are continuously generated from the surface of the nucleus which subsequently expands outwardly forming the coma structure as a transient dynamic feature and finally the constituents get lost in the interplanetary space through the tails. During the orbital motion, when the comet is nearer to the sun, the comet’s surface gets heated up by the strong solar radiations. It causes the volatile constituents on the surface of the nucleus to boil forming gases which along with the fine dust escape the nucleus at higher velocities. These gases carrying particles expand and form the transient coma of comets and their subsequent drift by the solar wind forms the ionic and dust tails. The jet structures seen in the comet go to provide scientific reasoning to different structural features of the coma. The formations of jets are thought to have been caused by regular outbursts of volatile constituents from the surface of the nucleus.

Analysis of possible dynamics: a new concept.

The formation of the coma structure by the above mechanism appears unrealistic for the following reasons. Comets attain velocities in the range of 30 to 50 kilometers per second, when they are towards the near end of the sun. The comets at such high velocities would normally give rise to the gaseous constituents to trail it. One would as well experience this fact by doing an experiment using an artificial satellite. However, if the radial expansion velocity is considered high compared to the velocity of the comet (a hypothetical case) then, one would expect an envelope of gas surrounding the nucleus. Such a gaseous envelope if formed would not have a near spherical shape to represent the typical coma structure. Once again the impact of solar wind is so high that some ions from the coma are knocked out to form an ion tail extending to distances as large as 150,000,000 km in the direction of the solar wind. One may wonder – why the powerful solar wind does not destroy the coma structure. It is, as if, the particles in the coma structure were bonded to the nucleus.

The comet system (the nucleus and the coma) appears to have an integral association like the association of planets with the sun, the satellites with the planets or the electronic structure with the nucleus of an atom. Thus, one cannot possibly ignore the feasibility of stronger interaction forces other than gravity for the stability of the coma structure. Hence, besides gravity, the electric charge force interaction may be one of the sound propositions to justify the coma structure. It is also seen from the records of spacecraft (Vega 1) that predominant charge activity including the magnetic polarity change are conspicuously present in the coma structure. An unexpected rotation of magnetic vector and an increased level of magnetic field turbulence have been recorded [3]. The spacecraft Suisei passed through the strong interaction region where solar wind flow was seriously perturbed by the pickup of ions of cometary origin and abrupt change in the plasma parameter was recorded around 4.5 x 10⁵ km. These records [4] shows that the electric charge forces are predominant in coma. It may be interesting to note that a reduction of spread of starting times of different ions is thought to have been caused by the disturbances of the electric field by the ion cloud space charge. In view of these observed phenomena, can Halley’s Comet (and other comets) be regarded as electrically charged bodies for a better interpretation of the coma structure?

This article does not intend to study the mechanism of shell structure formation in the coma but only records that the shell spacings are not arbitrary but arranged in a definite pattern following the general correlation model discussed in Ref.1. The shells in the coma exhibit a norm of outwardly expanding order of spacings as in the case of the shell structure of the solar system and planetary systems. Thus, extending the logic of the stability of orbital bodies, it may be presumed here that, the coma constituents originally released from the nucleus of the comet and expanding outward find relatively stable sites at these shells, sub-shells of the field features. However, the coma constituents can jump from one shell to another under external excitation. Comets are excited to a great extent by solar radiation and therefore, the cometary ions etc. jump from shell to shell while escaping from the extra nuclear structure of the cometary system (nucleus and coma). This new concept is in contrast to the existing concept, where the timely outbursts producing jets of gases and dusts form the shells in the coma while expanding outwardly. It may be seen here that the existing concept fails miserably to account for a mass balance. It was noticed by Vega 1 that the dust flux in the jets is not more than 3 times the flux in the coma [5]. In the new concept, the shells and subshells in extranuclear structure is formed due to a natural phenomenon and thus, it is not required to satisfy the dynamic mass balance as the continuity of flow (expansion) is coupled up with a period of residence in the shell locations. Hence, in the new concept the particle density in the coma is independent of the density of particles in the jet.

It is suggested that the outburst phenomenon in the comet is closely linked to a new quantum interaction when the comet crosses the shells and sub-shells of the solar system. Let us examine, how exactly the quantum interaction takes place. When the comet approaches a shell of the solar system (say, the shell that houses a planet) it meets the shell constituents (atoms, molecules, ions, electrons etc) which interact strongly with the constituents present in the shells of the coma giving rise to abrupt changes those result in strong breathing of hydrogen coma. Apparently, these abrupt changes in the coma caused by the above interactions of shell constituents do not have a bearing with the jet structure seen on the surface of the comet. We shall now discuss the formation of the jet structure from a different consideration altogether. The cosmic rays entering into the earth’s atmosphere are guided along the geomagnetic lines to reach the poles. Now, if somehow, a dense flux of cosmic rays enters the earth’s atmosphere or abruptly the plasma density increases in the ionosphere, then a large number of these particles while being guided along the geomagnetic lines would produce an air glow/glowing cloud near the poles due to a high concentration of activated species. A picture of this air glow if photographed from a distance would resemble a converging cloud with increasing density in the path closer to the poles. Thus, when there is a sudden increase of charge particles in the coma due to the interaction with the shells of the solar system, it produces an abrupt rise in the charge particle density in the part near the magnetic poles of the comet. The comets under such accelerated ion activity in the coma structure and near the poles show a picture of dust-cum-gas cloud configuration resembling a jet structure emanating from the comet surface. The jet features photographed by Vega 1 (or evidenced otherwise) might be due to the cause discussed above. The illusive concept of the jet picture has further given rise to imaginary outburst taking place on the surface of the comet. Hence, it may be interesting here to note that the jet structure does not form the coma but the coma forms the jet.

Careful examination of the dust-cum-gas shell might as well reveal the new shell, sub-shell structural features in the coma with existence of fine structures. If now, the recorded events taking place at different distances from the nucleus of the comet are considered as characteristic interactions of specific shell or sub-shell, then the shell distances may be found to follow the general correlation given in Ref.1. A list of events along with their distances from the nucleus of Halley’s Comet is presented in Table-1. These measured distances are now compared with the theoretically computed distances worked out following the extra nuclear shell model (Table-2). The percentage of deviation is found to be within limits of approximation inspite of the shells having been deformed from the spherical geometry under the action of external force fields. Thus, the new shell model of the extra nuclear structure of a celestial body also works well for the structure of the coma. A clear understanding of the mechanism and the nature of force interaction will perhaps reveal many mysteries of the solar system.

TABLE -1

A RECORD OF SOME IMPORTANT EVENTS IN THE SHELLS OF COMA OF

HALLEYS COMET AT DIFFERENT DISTANCES FROM THE NUCLEUS

DISTANCE	EVENTS	REFERENCE
300 km	The three channel spectrometer (TKS) aboard the Vega 2 space-craft recorded infrared and visible spectra near the nucleus of comet Halley. Spectra in the range 0.95-1.9 mm at a distance of 300 km from the nucleus reveal the H2O 1.38 mm and OH band.	Krasnopolsky, V.A. et al., Nature 321, 269-271 (1986)
500 km	In the internal part of coma, 500 km from nucleus, H2O and CO2 were identified by their infrared spectra IKS and TKS Experiments	Sagdeev, R.Z. et al, Nature 321, 259-262 (1986)
1000km	Visible spectra of comet Halley was measured at 1000 km distance from the optical axis to the nucleus.	Krasnopolsky,V.A, Nature 321, 269-271 (1986)
2450 km	The near ultraviolet and visible channel (V) of TKS instrument carried by Vega 2 reports the brightness of the OH (0,0) band to be around 1.2, 1.4, and 1.8 MR (Megarayleigh; IR = 106 photons cm-2S-1 (4pSr)-1 at distances of 4900, 2450 and 1000km from the nucleus	Moreels, G., et al., Nature 321, 271-274 (1986)
4900 km	– do –	– do –
1.04×104km	For a pointing centered on the nucleus 70% of the observed H2O molecules are in the sphere whose radius is equal to the projected size of our aparture radius at the comet (1.04 x 104 km)	Weaver, H.A, et al., Nature 324, 441-444 (1986)
2 x 104 km	Close to comet the water group of ions are dominant. The H3O+/H2O ratio increases with decreasing distance and exceeds unity at distance 20,000 km.	Krankowsky,D. et al., Nature 324, 326-329 (1986)
4 x 104 km	A sudden increase in cometary plasma density was registered by the PLASMAG experiment at a distance of 40,000 km from the cometary nucleus.	Sagdeev,R.Z., etal., Nature 321, 259-262 (1986)
7 x 104 km	On the out bound pass,the cometary ions reappear in SDA (Solar Direction Analyser) Vega 2, at 7 x 104 km from the nucleus.	Gringauz,K.I., et al., Nature 321, 282-285 (1986)
1.5 x105km	An increased number/density of dust particles in the mass range of 10-16 to 10-15 g which may be interpreted as the inbound crossing of the dust paraboloid for small particles took place at a distance of only 1.5 x 105 km from the nucleus.	Sagdeev, R. Z., et al., Nature 321, 259-262 (1986)
3 x 105 km	At a distance of 3 x 105 km from the nucleus, the solar wind proton population becomes comparable to the cometary implanted ions (Vega 2 data)	Gringauz, K.I., Nature 321, 282-285 (1986)
5.8 x 105 km	Expansion of hydrogen atom produced photo dissociation of the water outburst from a shell structure, propagating with time in the hydrogen coma, because the velocity of hydrogen atoms is much higher than that of the parent molecules. the image shows such a shell with a radius of about 0.58 x 105 km.	Kaneda,E. et al., Nature, 320, 140-141 (1986)
1.15×106km	At the time of Giotto encounter the bow shock was located at a distance 1.15 x 106 km from the nucleus.	Grard, R. et al., Nature 321, 290-291 (1986)
1.2 to 2.5x 106 km	An increase in electric field strength was detected at distances of 1.2 -2.5 x 106 km from the nuclus. It is not clear, wheather this increase is connected with the bow shock.	Grard, R. et al., Nature 321, 290-291 (1986)
5 x 106 km	A large turbulent region extends upstream of the bow-wave for 5 x 106 km from the nucleus. Here fluctuation in electron distribution occur, characterized by abrupt variation in the electron heat fluxes with Ro often reaching a value of unity; i.e. equal forward and reverse heat fluxes.	Reme, H. ey al., Nature 321, 349-351 (1986)
1 x 107 km	Waves due to plasma instabilities associated with the pickup of cometary ions by solar wind were observed within a region almost 107 km from the comet nucleus.	Oya, H. et al., Nature 321, 307-310 (1986)

TABLE -2

MATCHING OF OBSERVED EVENTS CORRELATING TO NEW SHELL-STRUCTURE

Observed

distance

from nucleus

x 104 km

Estimated

distance

from nucleus

x 104 km

Deviation

x 103 km

Percentage

of error

0.03

0.05

0.10

0.245

0.490

1.040

2.000

4.000

7.000

15.000

13.000

58.000

115.000

(120-250)

500.000

1000.000

0.0306

0.0612

0.1225

0.2450

0.4900

0.9800

1.9600

3.9200

7.8400

15.6800

31.3600

62.7200

125.4400

250.8800

501.7600

1003.5200

+0.006

–

0.000

-0.600

-0.400

-0.800

+0.8400

+0.6800

+18.3600

+4.72

+10.440

–

+1.7600

+3.5200

+2.00

–

0.000

-5.77

-2.00

+12.00

+4.30

+4.53

+8.14

+9.18

–

+0.35

Conclusion

The shell structure of the coma of a comet is similar to the shell structure of large celestial bodies and the placement of shell; sub-shells are also in GP series. Thus, the shell pattern appears universal.

This article is a part of the original work published in the book “Planetary electrodynamics-1”, Volume-1 of the series “Dynamics of universe; interplay of matter, space and charge”, 1998 by the same author.

References

Mohanty, B.C., Extrapolation of Bode’s Law towards unravelling the mysteries of the solar system. Art.1 of this issue.
Mohanty, B.C., Transit of Halley’s Comet and Identification of the shell structure in solar system. Art.2 of this issue.
Riedler, W. et al., Nature 321, 288-289(1986).
Mukai, T. et al., Nature 321, 299-303 (1986).
Sagdeev, R.Z., et al., Nature 321, 259-262 (1986).

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Transit of Halley’s Comet and Identification of The Shell Structure in Solar System

Bishnu Charanarbinda Mohanty — Mon, 25 Dec 2023 14:52:33 +0000

Abstract

The new finding that the orbital distances of celestial bodies (planets and satellites) follow a definite mathematical pattern [1] has now brought a change in the centuries old concept of continuous nature of orbits in the solar system. The new correlation suggests that, the gravity field surrounding a celestial body is something more than that is known by the inverse square law of gravity as it has to provide conditions for the stable orbits at set locations. Thus, it is suggested in the above reference that there are undulations in the gravity field with humps having energy wells those give rise to the formation of a complex shell structure. In this article, attempt has been made to verify the reality of the anticipated shell-structure in the gravity field through analysis of the record of events of Halley’s Comet. It is found that the explosive events in the coma of Halley’s Comet correspond to the orbital distances of planets (i.e. the locations of shells and sub-shells) and these events have occurred during the forward journey (towards the sun) as well as the return journey of the comet. Further, the ion-tail of the comet that stretches over long distances in space also reveal the typical interactions at shell, sub-shell locations as noticed from the discontinuity (change of features) at these specific sites. This article supplements the existence of shell structure in the extra nuclear space of a celestial body system as anticipated by the author in article-1 of this volume.

Key words: Halley’s Comet, transit of comets, strong breathing of hydrogen coma, solar system, discrete orbit in solar system.

Introduction

Bode’s Law (1770) gives a unique correlation among the distances of the planets from the sun. This has been verified for the Uranus (1781) and further proved relevant in finding the asteroids (1801). However, when the Neptune (1846) and the Pluto (1930) were discovered, they were found to deviate considerably from the Bode’s scheme and further, it does not work for the satellite systems of the planets. Bode’s Law may have a far reaching consequence if one considers its significance in the light of discrete orbit phenomenon in solar system, otherwise it looks to be a mere coincidence without any scientific value. The latter has been the case with Bode’s Law till date.

The limitations of Bode’s Law have now been removed after the development of a modified model with introduction of shell, sub-shell features which works uniformly for the planets of the sun and the satellites of the planets [1]. Such a generalized correlation of the distances of the orbital bodies cannot be ignored. Rather, a serious investigation in finding the cause would help to establish new scientific basis for the observed orderly placement of planets and satellites. The existing concept of gravity suggests only the feasibility of continuous nature of orbits and therefore it is not enough to justify the newly discovered discrete nature of orbits in solar system. Thus, Newtonian gravity needs to be modified for providing answer to the stable orbit conditions. Alternatively it would require introduction of new force fields operating in different ranges of interaction which along with the existing gravity can give rise to undulations in the inverse square field. The charge related forces (nuclear force, weak force and electromagnetic forces) experience different interactions operating in different distance ranges, whereas the mass related forces are considered to play over all ranges of distance from zero to infinity. As yet there is no sub-classification of gravitons, though forces of kilometric range interaction have been recorded in the lower atmosphere of the earth which makes one to suspect the existence of a 5th force [2]. Thus, due to lack of a clear understanding of gravitational interaction, there exists a room for accepting the formation of humps and valleys in the gravity field which might give rise to the organisation of the anticipated shell structure. Hence, the orderly spacing of the orbital bodies may be due to the formation of shell structure following some definite norm. This article does not go deep into the analysis of the mechanism of formation of the shell structure but only verifies its existence through a typical study of the interaction of Haley’s comet with the anticipated shell structure in solar system.

In the light of the newly identified discrete orbit phenomenon, the planets and satellites are thought to have been trapped in the energy wells provided in the shell, sub-shell structure. One would imagine here as if a kind of quantum dynamics were also operating in the solar system. In this new quantum concept for the celestial body systems (solar system), the comet which crosses the shells and sub-shells would be interpreted (with a loud thinking) to have been continuously jumping from shell to shell somewhat like the electrons jumping from one orbit to another in atomic system. For such quantum operations, the comets are expected to release (flare)/receive (absorb) energy equivalent in order to reach equilibrium in respect of energy levels at the concerned shells they approach. The outburst and the formation of gas-cum-dust jets from the nucleus of the comet can be interpreted as events of quantum energy transfer in the new quantum concept in solar system.

Sudden changes in coma of halley’s comet

The brightness of comets primarily depends on three factors, viz. i) the heliocentric distance of the comet (r), ii) the nature of the comet, and iii) the geocentric distance (∆). The total brightness (I) is given by:

I = I_o / r²∆² (2.1)

Where, Io is the constant of proportionality and refers to the brightness of the comet for r = ∆ = 1 AU

Over and above the total brightness (I), there are sudden fluctuations in the brightness of comets noticed at definite intervals. These are, at present attributed to some phenomena of the surface feature of the nucleus occurring due to the preferential orientation of the comet’s surface towards the sun. However, the sequential appearance of strong breathing (increase of cometary activities) of coma and the suspected outburst on the surface of the nucleus as the cause as well as the many features of the tail can otherwise be better interpreted through the characteristic energy level interactions of the comet when it crosses the shells and sub-shells of the solar system.

A survey of cometary outburst and subsequent formation of jets of gases and dusts in Halley’s Comet clearly reveals that, the outburst phenomenon is closely interlinked with the shell distances from the sun (i.e. the orbital distances of planets) as shown in Fig.1. The evidences supporting this fact are as follows.

i) Strong breathing of hydrogen coma of Halley’s comet was observed by Japanese inter-planetary spacecraft, Suisei at pre-perihelion distance of 1.5 AU [3] and again at post perihelion heliocentric distance of 1.5 AU (i.e, on 23rd April 1986) the existence of three jets were recorded [4]. This heliocentric distance corresponds to a definite extra nuclear shell of the solar system that houses the planet, mars (i.e, the orbit of mars).

ii) A cometary outburst was observed at a pre-perihelion heliocentric distance of 1 AU i.e, on 24th December 1985 and again at a similar post perihelion heliocentric distance the outburst was recorded by the NASA Kuiper Airborne Observatory [5]. This heliocentric distance relates to the shell of the solar system where the earth is located (i.e, the orbit of the earth).

iii) When the comet touched the orbital radius of the Venus at a heliocentric distance of 0.717 AU, the breathing of hydrogen coma was activated [6].

iv) Outbursts were recorded by Vega and Giotto spacecrafts [7] at the heliocentric distance of 4.6 AU which approximately corresponds to the orbit of the jupiter.

v) The comet was first seen (this time) at a distance of 11AU [8] which was probably due to sudden increase of brightness when it interacted with the shell of the solar system corresponding to the orbit of the saturn.

As long as, the quantum event occurring in the comet has a strong bearing with the features of the shell structure, this one to one correspondence cannot be ignored.

Changes in the features of the ion-tail of comets

Once again the ion-tail of Halley’s comet which stretches over long distances through the shell structure of the solar system, exhibits conspicuous events at these shell locations. The extra nuclear shells might have different definite potentials, temperatures, and pressures etc. which give rise to favourable energy level interactions at these shells. Besides the physical properties of the shells, many reactive species (carried in the solar wind or escaped from the upper-atmospheres of the planets) trapped in the shells give rise to the abrupt formation of the new products. Some of the events taking place in the ion-tail are mentioned below without going into the details of the chemistry which may be used in the interpretation of the shell structure.

The photograph of the tail of Halley’s Comet at Kiso Astronomical observatory, University of Tokyo on 11th March, 1986 at 19:35 UT clearly reveals bright bands around the middle of the tail of 0.3 AU long [9]. The distance of bright band is estimated to be 0.15 AU from the nucleus of the comet. On the same day i.e. 11th March, the comet was roughly at a distance of 0.85 AU [10]. From the above data the approximate distance of bright band from the sun is computed as 1 AU (i.e, 0.85 AU + 0.15 AU). There are further bright bands of less prominence on either side of the main band with increasing order of spacings. This heliocentric distance corresponds to the orbit of the earth. Thus, the bright band features (Fig.2) corresponds well with the newly anticipated shell structure in the solar system.

The band structure in the tail is also seen from the photograph of the comet Kohoutek taken on 13th January, 1974, when the comet was at a distance of 0.58 AU. The wavy tail structure had an extension of about 3.6x 10⁸ km and the distance of the centre of the wave band was 0.16 x 10⁸ km [11]. Thus, the centre of the wave structure was at a distance of (0.58 x 1.49599) 10⁸ km + 0.16 x 10⁸ km which is equal to 1.03 x 10⁸ km from the sun. This distance corresponds to the orbit of the venus. Hence, when the comet was at a heliocentric distance of 0.58 AU, the tail had interactions with the shell structure corresponding to the orbit of the venus. The kilometric wavelength radiations [12] obtained from the plasma tail of Halley’s Comet may be better understood from the new energy level interactions in the shell structure. The concept of solar magnetic neutral sheet would not be required to have plasma wave interactions in the new concept of shell structure in the solar system.

Conclusion

The force derived from the charge property of matter experience different ranges of interaction. Whereas the force derived from the mass property of matter has only one range of interaction, though forces of kilometric range interaction have been recorded in the lower atmosphere of the earth which makes one to suspect for the existence of a 5th force. Thus, due to lack of a clear understanding of gravitational interaction, there exists a room for accepting the formation of humps and valleys in the gravity field which might give rise to the organization of the anticipated shell structure. Hence, the orderly spacing of the orbital bodies may be due to the formation of shell structure following some definite norm.

References

Mohanty B.C., ‘Extrapolation of Bode’s Law towards Unravelling the Mysteries of the Solar System’, Article 1 of this volume.
Rujula, A. De. CERN-TH.4466/ 86(Report) June 1986.
Daneda, E. et.al, Nature 320, 140-141 (1986).
Michael, F. et al., Nature 324, 649-651 (1986).
Weaver, H.A. et al., Nature 324, 441-444 (1986).
Kaneda, E. et al., Nature 321, 297-298 (1986).
Feldman, P.D. et al., Nature 324, 433-436 (1986)
Sagdeev, R.Z., et al., Nature 321, 259-262 (1986).
Takao, Saito, et al., Nature 321, 303-307 (1986).
Kaneda, E. et al., Nature 321, 297-299 (1986)
Krishnaswamy, K.S.,‘Physics of Comets’, World Scientific Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., P.218 (1985).
Hiroshi, O. et al., Nature, 321, 307-310 (1986).

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Extrapolation of Bode’s Law Towards Unravelling The Mysteries of The Solar System

Bishnu Charanarbinda Mohanty — Mon, 25 Dec 2023 13:50:52 +0000

Abstract

Bode’s Law describes the correlation of the distances of planets from the sun which is unique of its kind. Though Bode’s Law was verified for the Uranus (which was discovered subsequently) and further became applicable in finding the asteroid belt, many astronomers dismiss Bode’s Law as a mere coincidence. Today it has no connection with modern astronomy. In this paper a new model in the light of Bode’s Law is proposed which works well uniformly for the planets of the sun and the satellites of respective planets. The author postulates an undulated gravity field with humps providing energy wells for the stable locations of the orbital bodies. Thus, a kind of discrete orbit system appears valid for the solar system like the atomic system. Key words: Bode’s law, solar system, planets, satellites

Introduction

In 1770 Titius developed an interesting mathematical correlation among the distances of the planets from the sun. This finding was first published and made famous by J.E. Bode, the then Director of Berlin observatory and was subsequently known as Bode’s Law [1]. The law states: Take numbers 0, 3, 6, 12, 24, 48, 96 and 192 each of which apart from the first is double its predecessor. Now add 4 to each giving 4, 7, 10, 16, 28, 52, 100 and 196. Taking the earth’s distance from the sun as 10, these figures give the distances of the remaining planets with remarkable accuracy as shown in Table -1. When Bode proposed this correlation, the Uranus had not been discovered, but later in 1781 when the Uranus was discovered by Sir William Herschel, it exactly fitted into the scheme. This gave impetus to Bode’s Law and a serious search was initiated for the missing planet in the gap between the mars and the Jupiter. In 1800 AD six astronomers met in Germany to organise a systematic hunt for the missing planet. The association thus formed was unofficially popular under the name ‘Celestial Police’. However, the first asteroid was discovered in January 1, 1801 by an Italian astronomer, Giuseppe Piazzi in the island of Sicily. This was first considered to be a tailless comet. Subsequently Karl Friedrich Gauss, a German mathematician made use of the large number of observations of Piazzi and established that the new little planet fitted well into the scheme of Bode’s Law. Here, one may notice that, Bode’s Law not only was a mathematical correlation of the planets known then but has been verified for the location of the Uranus and further proved useful in discovering the asteroids. But when the Neptune was discovered in 1846 and the Pluto in 1930 they were found to deviate from Bode’s correlation. Moreover, it is not applicable to the satellite systems of the planets. This made many astronomers dismiss Bode’s Law as mere coincidence. Until today Bode’s Law has no connection with the modern, totally unofficial “Spode’s Law” which states broadly that if things can go wrong they do [2]. No doubt, Bode’s mathematical correlation faced limitations for the complete observation of orbital bodies in solar system but these limitations may not be enough to discard the law totally because most of the manmade laws of nature have limitations while working in a limited frame of reference. The author’s feeling here is that Bode’s Law cannot totally be meaningless. He believes that, Bode’s Law as stated by Titius and Bode is perhaps an incomplete description of the correlation for the entire solar system towards the placement of orbital celestial bodies and possibly the law can be modified to overcome its limitations. For example, the placement of electrons in the atomic structure is complete by consideration of both shells and sub-shells. Thus, any proposal for a quantum theory dealing with the shells alone could have been discarded at the equal footing of Bodes’s Law due to incomplete answer for the observed energy level events. In view of this, the author has made a humble approach to supplement Bode’s Law towards a complete satisfactory correlation of the orbital bodies in the solar system.

Observation of quantum correlation for planetary discrete orbits – a new finding:

A glance at the distances of the planets from the sun (Table-1) and the orbital distances of the satellites of the Jupiter (Table-2) gives an impression as if the orbital bodies have an inherent tendency to maintain an outwardly expanding order of spacing. The phenomenon approximates the placement of orbital bodies in some geometrical progression (GP) series. Bode’s Law which correlates the distances of planets from the sun also speaks of this fact. Bode’s Law can be written in the following mathematical form. D_n = (4+3 x 2ⁿ)/10 (1.1) Where, D_n is the distance of the nth orbit from the sun (except for the mercury) in astronomical units (AU) n is an integer and can have values 0,1,2,3 ………. We may generalise the expression by writing D_n = (a + b cⁿ)k Where, a,b,c are constants of the central gravitating body k is the scale constant ak is the distance of the mercury from the sun The satellites of the Jupiter also having the outwardly expanding order of placement is quite tempting for finding out a GP series correlating the placement of satellites. Here, it is seen that, a considerable number of satellites do respond well for their placement correlating through a GP series while the others deviate considerably. One might ask a serious question – why after all a group of planets and satellites respond to GP series for their placement? The response is so striking that it just cannot be ignored for being a coincidence. At this juncture, the locations of the satellites of the Jupiter and the Uranus, those exhibiting different norms (those having a misfit in the GP series) may be examined in detail for finding some clue. It is noticed that some of the above satellites exhibit a tendency of forming closer groups around certain orbits. Referring to Fig.1, it may be seen that, around a distance of 1.18 x 10⁷ km from the Jupiter, the satellites form a grouping with closer intervals. In the similar manner around a distance of 0.646 x 10⁵ km from the Uranus, the satellites of the Uranus also form similar grouping.

TABLE-1
BODE’S LAW
PLANET DISTANCES OF PLANETS FROM SUN (SCALE 10 UNITS = 1 au = 1.494 x 10⁸ kms)
Planets	According to Bode’s law	Actual
MERCURY	4	3.9
VENUS	7	7.2
EARTH	10	10
MARS	16#	15.2
JUPITER	52	52
SATURN	100	95.4
URANUS	196	(191.8) *

* (The asteroids, Uranus, Neptune and Pluto were not known during Bode’s time), ** Values taken from the book ‘Astronomy’ by Patrick Moore, Oldbourne LONDON, 1964. # Maximum percentage of error = (16-15.2) x 100/15.2 = 5.263%

TABLE-2
ORBITAL DISTANCES OF SATELLITES OF JUPITER
Sl. No	Satellite(name)	Revolution period (in sideral days)	Semi major axis in kms
1	Thebe	0.675	2.22 x 10⁵
2	Io	1.769	4.25 x 10⁵
3	Europa	3.551	6.76 x 10⁵
4	Ganymede	7.155	1.08 x 10⁶
5	Callisto	16.689	** 1.90 x 10⁶
6	Leda	240	** 1.11 x 10⁷
7	Himalia	251	** 1.15 x 10⁷
8	Lysithia	260	** 1.17 x 10⁷
9	Elara	260	** 1.18 x 10⁷
10	Ananke	617	## 2.08 x 10⁷
11	Carme	692	## 2.24 x 10⁷
12	Pasiphae	735	## 2.33 x 10⁷
13	Sinope	758	## 2.38 x 10⁷

* Values are taken from, Theodore P. Snow ‘The Dynamic Universe’, 2nd edition, West publishing company, New York, 1985, P.569. ** May belong to one group, ## May belong to one group

The orderly spacing of the satellites those don’t respond to the locations conforming to the GP series originating from the planet are as if they were placed in another GP series originating from a principal orbit. These placement sites may be called as sub-orbits of the principal orbit.

In the light of the new concept of sub-orbits of a principal orbit, a new model for correlating the distances of orbital bodies is proposed by the author in Fig.2. This new thinking goes in coherence with the existence of many orbitals associating an orbit in the atomic system. However, it may be controversial to think that the sub-orbits/sub-shells of an orbit to have different mean radial distances in contrast to the established fact in atomic system, where the orbitals/sub-shells of an orbit/shell have essentially the same mean radius but with different geometry of the orbit. At this stage without looking for a unification of the atomic and the solar system, let us only borrow the orbital/sub-shell concept from the atomic system to the planetary system just like the borrowed orbital electron concept taken from the planetary system and deal the two systems separately according to their realities.

The shell, sub-shells/sub-orbits of planetary (newly identified) and atomic (existing) systems are shown in Fig.3. The existence of sub-orbits can be better examined from the analysis of the placement of asteroids between the mars and the Jupiter. Surprisingly enough, the asteroids too reveal this fact remarkably well. A schematic presentation of the locations of the major asteroids of the solar system is shown in Fig.4. It may be seen clearly from the distances of the asteroids3 that the spacing of sub-orbits/sub-shells of a principal orbit/shell also goes on expanding outwardly in either direction similar to the outward expansion of the spacing of the principal orbits. Now, with this new concept of orbits and sub-orbits, it becomes easier to develop a mathematical formulation of the GP-series to establish the hidden relationship of the orbits/shells and the sub-orbits/sub-shells.

New mathematical correlation of orbits and sub-orbits.

The GP series given in eqn. (1.2) ascertain the positions of all principal orbits with reference to any one of the principal orbits.

D’_n = z x 2ⁿ (1.2)

Where,

D’_n is the distance of nth principal orbit of the central gravitating body measured from any (conventionally innermost) principal orbit/shell as the reference..

z is the nucleus constant of the central gravitating body.

n is an integer, conventionally can have values 0, 1, 2, 3 ….

Again the distances of sub-orbits/sub-shells (D_l) measured from the concerned principal orbit/shell can be expressed as:

D_l = z₁c^l₁ (1.3)

Where, D_l = the distance of the l^th sub-orbit/sub-shell measured radially from the concerned

principal orbit/shell.

z₁ is a function of the nucleus constant of the central gravitating body.

c₁ is the constant of the principal orbit / shell

l is an integer which can have values … -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3 …

By computation and analysis of the actual distances of orbital bodies in the solar system it is found that,

z₁ = z and c₁ = 2

Hence, D_l = z.2^l (1.4)

From eqn. (1.3) and eqn. (1.4) it is seen that the principal orbit/shell and the sub-orbit /sub-shell are decided from the nucleus constant only. Here, one might like to draw a simile with the nucleus constant of the atomic system.

Limiting values of the integers n and l

The integers n and l used for determination of the principal orbits/shells and sub-orbits/sub-shells respectively need to be understood for their limiting values and their inter relation. Consider any n^th principal orbit/shell in Fig.5.

For n^th shell, D’_n = z. 2ⁿ

For (n-1)^th shell, D’_n-1 = z. 2^n-1

For (n+1)^th shell, D’_n+1 = z. 2ⁿ⁺¹

Thus the spacing between (n-1)^th principal orbit/shell and the n^th principal orbit/shell is given by:

D’_n – D’_n-1 = z. 2ⁿ – z .2^n-1 = z. 2^n-1

And the spacing between the nth principal orbit and the (n+1)^th principal orbit is given by:

D’_n+1 – D’_n = z. 2ⁿ⁺¹ – z. 2ⁿ = z. 2ⁿ

Hence, D’_n – D’_n-1 = (1/2) (D’_n+1 – D’_n)

Theoretically the series z 2ⁿ and z 2^l can reach infinity. But this does not happen in reality as there are other celestial bodies in the proximity. When the principal orbits/shells of one celestial body go on extending outwardly, they meet the principal orbits /shells of other celestial bodies in the proximity and this limits the formation of further principal orbits/shells. Thus, the extent, to which a celestial body organises its principal orbits/shells, depends on the strength of the organising forces as well as the background conditions. Likewise the sub-orbits/sub-shells of a principal orbit/shell while having their outwardly expanding placement, find terminal limitations from either sides by the sub-orbits / sub-shells of the neighbouring orbits/shells. Now, limiting the maximum distance of sub-shells to the mid-points of the spacings of the corresponding principal shells, the maximum distance of inward (towards the central gravitating body) and outward (away of the central gravitating body) sub-orbits of a principal orbit may be written as :

(D_{li Max}) = (1/2) (z. 2ⁿ – z. 2^n-1 ) = z. 2^n-2 (1.5)

and ( D_{lo Max}) = (1/2) (z. 2ⁿ⁺¹ – z. 2ⁿ) = z. 2^n-1 (1.6)

Where

(D_Max = the maximum distance of inward sub-orbit/sub-shell of n^th principal orbit/ shell measured from the principal orbit / shell.

(D_{lo Max}) = the maximum distance of outward sub-orbit/sub-shell of nth principal orbit/shell measured from the principal orbit/shell.

Now from eqn. (1.4) and eqn. (1.6)

(D_{li Max}) = z.2^(li)Max = z.2^n-2

hence (li)_Max= n-2

Similarly , (lo)_Max= n-1

Thus, the maximum value of l = (lo)_Max = n-1

Like the formation of sub-orbits/sub-shells around an orbit/shell, the formation of sub-sub-orbits/sub-sub-shells around a sub orbit/sub-shell and so on cannot be ruled out. Perhaps these shell, sub-shell, sub-sub-shell,… features of a celestial body give rise to the formation of gravitational field humps (generating energy wells) in the extra nuclear space of a celestial body where the larger orbital bodies are trapped in the shells and sub-shells leaving the sub-sub-shells, sub-sub-sub-shells,…. for smaller bodies, like dust particles, aerosols etc., those form the rings, layer structures in upper and lower atmosphere.

The anticipated picture of the gravity field with trapping energy wells those resulting discrete placement of orbital celestial bodies surrounding a nucleus body is shown in Fig.6. Scientists working in space laboratories have greater scope of examining the nature of gravitational wells to establish this new concept.

Now, similar to the analysis of sub-shells, one may analyse the limiting conditions of sub-sub-shells, sub-sub-sub-shells… as presented in Fig.5. In the light of earlier calculations it can be shown that,

(D_l)_Max = z.2^n-1 =(1/2) z.²ⁿ (1.7)

(D_m)_Max = z.2^l-1 = (1/4) z.2ⁿ (1.8)

(D_s) _Max = z.2^m-1 = (1/8) z.2ⁿ (1.9)

and l_Max = n-1

m_Max = l-1

s_Max = m-1

Where

l, m and s are the integers corresponding to sub-shells, sub-sub-shells and sub-sub-sub-shell respectively.

Let us now find the lower limit of the integer n. Theoretically the innermost shell corresponding to n= -ꭃ falls at the centre of the central celestial body. Obviously, this is beyond the continuity of extra nuclear space and thus the correlation does not hold good. The lowest limit of the shell (innermost shell) is decided by the parameters of the central gravitating body. In general, the value of (D’_n)_Min corresponding to n_Min is very small as compared to the distances of the shells housing the orbital celestial bodies. Hence, for simplicity the distance D’_n of the principal shell measured from the innermost shell can be approximated to shell radius D_n shown in Fig.7. The average value of shell radius can further be approximated to the semi-major axis of an orbital body; hence, D’_n~D_n

Where

D’_n = the distance of nth principal orbit/shell measured from the innermost shell.

D_n = the distance of nth principal orbit/shell measured

From the centre of the central gravitating body

i.e. the semi-major axis of the orbital body.

We may now write the general expression for the distances of the shells, sub-shells, sub-sub-shells … which corresponds to the distances of orbital bodies from the central body.

D = z.2ⁿ ±z.2^l ± z.2^m ±z.2^s ±……….

D = z(2ⁿ ±2^l ±2^m + 2^s ±…….) (1.10)

Where

D is the distance of the orbital body from the centre of the central gravitating body (i.e. the semi-major axis of the orbital body by approximation)

z is nucleus constant

n, l, m and s are integers / quantum numbers of shells, sub-shells, sub-sub-shells and sub-sub-sub-shells respectively

which can have values … -5, -4, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3 …

with a condition:

l_max = n-1, m_max= l-1, S_max = m-1 …..

The values of constant z for the sun and different planets in the solar system have been evaluated while trying to fit the model with the available data. The value of z for the sun has been easily obtained from the detailed study of symmetry of orbits of asteroids. From this symmetry the location of one of the principal shells can be speculated to be around 4.141 x 108 km from the sun.

Thus,

Dn = 4.141 x 10⁸ km for n = 3

(By fixing n = 0 for the mercury)

Hence, z = D_n/2ⁿ = 0.5176 x 10⁸ km

For evaluation of orbital distances of celestial bodies, it may be enough to work-out up to sub-shells only. Thus, eqn. (1.10) may be reduced to

D = z.2ⁿ ±z.2^l = z (2ⁿ ± 2^l) (1.10a)

The complete shell, sub-shell locations of orbital bodies in solar system have been calculated using eqn. (1.10a) and presented graphically in Fig.8, Fig.9, Fig.10, Fig.11 and Fig.12 for different systems. It may be seen from all these figures that the placement of celestial bodies agrees well to the general model as proposed here. The deviations of the computed results from the actual ones (table-3, table-4, table-5, table-6 and table-7) are well within the limits of approximations made in the computation as well as in the uncertainty in measurements. And further the celestial bodies in the orbits

TABLE-3 ^[3]
PERCENTAGE DEVIATION IN THE PREDICTED DISTANCES OF THE PLANETS AND MAJOR ASTEROIDS FROM THE SUN
Name of Plants & Asteroids	Observed distance x 10⁸ km	computed distance x 10⁸ km	Difference x 10⁸ km	Percentage deviation
Mercury	0.579	0.5823	+0.0033	+0.57
Venus	1.082	1.0675	– 0.0145	-1.34
Earth	1.496	1.5528	+0.0568	+3.79
Mars	2.279	2.3292	+0.0502	+2.20
Adonis	2.942	3.1056	………	……..
Amor	2.878	…….	………	……..
Brucia	3.564	3.624	………	……..
Vesta	3.531	……..	………	……..
Nemansa	3.539	……..	……..	……..
Iris	3.567	……..	……..	……..
Hebe	3.629	……..	……..	……..
Asbraca	3.848	3.8820	0.0342	+0.89
Juno	3.994	……..	……..	……..
Eunomia	3.956	4.0114	……..	……..
Feodosia	4.008	……..	……..	……..
Ceres	4.141	4.1408	……..	……..
Pallas	4.141	……..	……..	……..
Hyglea	4.173	4.2704	+0.0974	+2.33
Psyche	4.392	4.3998	+0.0078	+0.17
Dayida	4.759	4.6586	-0.1004	-2.11
Jupiter	7.783	7.764	-0.0190	-0.24
Saturn	14.27	14.493	+0.2230	+1.56
Uranus	28.69	28.986	+0.2960	+1.03
Neptune	44.98	49.69	+4.710	+10.47
Pluto	59	57.97	-1.0300	-1.74

TABLE-4
PERCENTAGE DEVIATION IN THE PREDICTED DITANCES OF THE SATELLITES of JUPITER
No	Name	Observed distance * x 10⁵ km	Computed distancex 10⁵ km	Difference x 10⁵ km	Percentage deviation
16	Metis	1.2796	1.2733	-0.0063	-0.806
14	Adrastea	1.2987	1.2733	-0.0254	-1.956
5	Amalthea	1.8206	1.8231	+0.0025	+0.137
15	Thebe	2.2205	2.0835	-0.1370	-6.170
1	Io	4.2482	4.1670	-0.0812	-1.911
2	Europa	6.7614	6.945	+0.1836	+2.7150
3	Ganymede	10.7811	11. 1120	+0.3309	+3.0690
4	Callisto	18.9919	18.5200	-0.4719	-2.4850
13	Leda	111.3809	111.1200	-0.2609	-0.2340
6	Himalia	114.9508	114.8240	-0.1268	-0.1100
10	Lysithia	117.0927	116.6760	-0.4167	-0.3560
7	Elar	117.8067	117.6020	-0.2047	-0.1740
2	Ananke	207.7682	207.4200	-0.3482	-0.1680
11	Carme	224.1897	222.2400	-1.9497	-0.8700
8	Pasiphae	233.4715	233.3500	-0.1215	-0.0520
9	Sinope	237.7553	237.9800	+0.2247	+0.0950

* Ref. Snow, T.P., The Dynamic Universe: An Introduction to

Astronomy, West Publishing Company, 2nd Edn., (1985), P 210

Percentage deviation= (Computed distance-Observed distance ) /Observed distance ×100

TABLE-5
PERCENTAGE DEVIATION IN THE PREDICTED DISTANCES OF THE SATELLITES OF SATURN
No	Name	Observed distance * x 10⁵ km	Computed distance x 10⁵ km	Difference x 10⁵ km	Percentage deviation
17	Atlas	1.3767	1.3880	+ 0.0113	+ 0.821
16	1980 S 27	1.3936	1.4027	– 0.0090	– 0.653
15	1980 S 26	1.4172	1.4175	+ 0.0003	+ 0.021
10	Janus	1.5143	1.5356	+ 0.0213	+ 1.406
11	Epimetheus	1.5143	1.5356	+ 0.0213	+ 1.406
1	Mimas	1.8551	1.8605	+ 0.0054	+ 0.291
2	Enceladus	2.3806	2.3625	– 0.0181	– 0.760
13	Telesto	2.9465	2.8350	– 0.1115	– 3.784
14	Calypso	2.9465	2.8350	– 0.1115	– 3.784
3	Tethys	2.9465	2.8350	– 0.1115	– 3.874
	No name I	3.3001	3.3075	+ 0.0074	+ 0.224
4	Dione	3.7742	3.7671	– 0.0071	– 0.188
12	1980 S 6	3.7809	3.7689	– 0.0120	– 0.317
	No name II	3.7827	3.7726	– 0.0101	– 0.267
	No name III	4.6997	4.7250	+ 0.0253	+ 0.538
5	Rhea	5.2710	5.1975	– 0.0735	– 1.394
6	Tita	12.2168	11.3400	– 0.8768	– 7.177
7	Hyperion	14.8110	14.8840	+ 0.0730	+ 0.493
8	Iapetus	35.6068	34.0200	– 1.5868	– 4.455
9	Phoebe	129.5285	128.5200	– 1.0085	– 0.779

* Ref. :Snow, T.P., The Dynamic Universe: An Introduction to Astronomy,

West Publishing Co., 2nd. Ed., (1985) P 225, 231, (O-Outer; I – Inner)

TABLE-6

PERCENTAGE DEVIATION IN THE PREDICTED DISTANCES OF THE RINGS OF SATURN

Name

Observed distance * x 10⁵ km

Computed distance

x 10⁵ km

Difference x 10⁵ km

Percentage deviation

Ring D

0.6697

0.7088

…….

……..

Ring C

0.7439

0.8269

…….

……..

Ring B

0.9194

1.1740

0.9450

…….

……..

Ring A

1.2193

1.3665

1.1812

…….

……..

…….

Ring F

1.4033

1.4175

+0.0142

-2.102

Ring G

1.6892

1.6537

-0.0355

…….

-2.102

……..

Ring E

4.8264

3.7800

…….

……..

* Ref. :Snow, T.P., The Dynamic Universe: An Introduction to Astronomy,

West Publishing Co., 2nd. Ed., (1985) P 225, 231, (O-Outer; I – Inner)

TABLE-7
PERCENTAGE DEVIATION IN THE PREDICTED DISTANCES OF THE SATELLITES AND RINGS OF URANUS
No	Name	Observed distance * x 10⁵ km	Computed distance x 10⁵ km	Difference x 10⁵ km	Percentage deviation
1	1986 U2R	3.70 – 3.95	3.7632	0.0000	0.000
2	6 Ring	4.185	4.1664	– 0.0186	– 0.444
3	5 Ring	4.224	4.2336	+ 0.0096	+0.227
4	4 Ring	4.258	4.2672	+ 0.0092	+0.216
5		4.473	4.4352	– 0.0378	-0.845
6		4.567	4.5696	+ 0.0026	+0.057
7		4.718	4.7040	– 0.0140	-0.297
8		4.763	4.7712	+ 0.0082	-0.172
9		4.831	4.8384	+ 0.0074	+0.153
10	1986 UIR	5.004	4.9728	– 0.0312	– 0.624
11		5.116	5.1072	– 0.0088	– 0.172
12	1986 U7	4.970	4.9728	– 0.0312	– 0.624
13	1986 U8	5.380	5.3764	– 0.0036	– 0.067
14	1986 U9	5.920	5.9136	– 0.0064	– 0.108
15	1986 U3	6.180	6.1824	+ 0.0024	+0.039
16	1986 U6	6.270	6.3168	+ 0.0468	+0.746
17	1986 U2	6.460	6.4176	– 0.0424	– 0.656
18	1986 U1	6.610	6.5856	– 0.0244	– 0.369
19	1986 U4	6.990	6.9888	– 0.0012	– 0.017
20	1986 U5	7.530	7.5264	– 0.0036	– 0.048
21	1985 U1	8.600	8.6016	+ 0.0016	+0.019
22	Miranda	12.990	12.9024	– 0.0876	-0.674
23	Ariel	19.090	19.3536	+ 0.2636	+1.381
24	Umbriel	26.600	26.3424	– 0.2576	– 0.970
25	Titania	43.630	43.0080	– 0.6220	-1.426
26	Oberon	58.340	58.0606	– 0.2794	-0.479

* Ref. Stone, E.C. and Miner, E.D. “The Voyager 2 Encounter with the Uranian System” SCIENCE, Vol. 223, 4 July 1986, p 41.

Percentage deviation = (Computed distance-Observed distance) /Observed distance x 100

may have secondary effects in modulating the shell, sub-shell structure, formed primarily by the central gravitating body. Though the anticipated undulated gravity with humps provides large number of possible locations for placement of stable orbital bodies but the actual occurrences depends on the cosmic history. This makes many shells and sub-shells to remain vacant without an orbital body being present in it.

Conclusion

The shell, sub-shell features in the extranuclear space surrounding a celestial body as anticipated here with definite correlation remarkably reveals the discrete nature of orbits for celestial body systems. The new model exactly fits for the planets of the sun and the satellites of respective planets. The new model also reduces the gap between the atomic systems and the celestial body systems by identifying discreteness in the orbits of celestial bodies in solar system. A detailed study of the nature of gravitational interaction vis a vis this newly observed discrete orbit phenomenon will provide adequate knowledge for the formation of energy wells and might as well speak for the cause of gravity.

References

1. Moore, P., ‘Astronomy’, Oldbourne Book Co. Ltd., London, 2nd Rev. Edn. 1964, p.98

2. Moore, P., ‘The A-Z of Astronomy‘, William Collins Son Co. Ltd., 3rd Edition, Glasgow, 1978.

3. `Hand Book of Chemistry and Physics’, CRC Press, 60th Edn. 1979-80.

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Charge Structure in Clouds and Lower Atmosphere

Bishnu Charanarbinda Mohanty — Mon, 25 Dec 2023 12:20:44 +0000

Abstract

Extensive studies have been carried out to understand the mechanism of thunderstorm electricity. Despite the use of modern measurement techniques and advanced theoretical treatment, the significant physics in micro and macro scales are still not clear. Besides the thunderstorm electricity, fair-weather electric field has been well recorded. The author considers the charge state of the surface of the earth and its atmosphere to be more fundamental. The charge polarisation of the atmospheric shells provides an appropriate answer to the fair-weather field. The fair-weather global field undergoes modification with the formation of cloud in the field medium. This new consideration agrees well with the observed electric structure in the cloud.

Key words: Thunderstorm electricity, Fair-weather electricity, Air-earth current, Cloud precipitation, Precipitation model of cloud charging, Convection model of cloud charging, Tripole electric structure.

Introduction

Benjamin Franklin in the year 1752, for the first time demonstrated that lightning bolt is a giant electric discharge. This means, lightning is a transfer of either positive or negative charge from one region of the cloud to another or between the cloud and the earth. Since then, numerous investigations have been carried out to understand the mechanism of electrification of cloud. Despite the use of modern equipments, advanced techniques and improved theoretical treatment, the origin of electrification of clouds remains elusive. Even today, the significant physics for both in micro and macro scales is missing [1].

A cloud having the positive charge at the uppermost region and the negative charge in the lowermost region is conventionally known to have a positive dipole electric structure and the cloud with a reverse polarity charge has negative dipole structure. Prior to 1885 Julius Elster and Hans. F. Geitel for the first time proposed the precipitation hypothesis to explain the positive dipole structure in cloud. The hypothesis assumes that rain drops; hailstones and gaupel particles (millimetre to centimetre size ice pellets) in thunder cloud are pulled by gravity downward which passes through the air containing smaller water droplets and ice crystals in suspension [2]. This permits collision of precipitated particles with the mist of water droplets and ice crystals where it is conjectured that negative charge is transferred to the precipitated particles and positive charge to the mist. Due to the negative charge of the precipitated particles, the lower part of the cloud accumulates negative charge while the upper part accumulates positive charge (Fig.1). By this explanation, the charge structure in cloud was justified to have a positive dipole as a regular feature.

In 1920 Wilson made observations of a large number of thunder storms from a distance by measurement of electric field produced by a charged cloud and inferred that the basic structure of thunder cloud was that of a positive dipole. At about the same time Simpson made measurements of charge on the rain falling from the thunder cloud and concluded that the lower region was positively charged while the upper was negatively charged. This Wilson – Simpson controversy could not be resolved for about 50 years, till observations established that the basic structure is not dipolar but tripolar [3]. While the Wilson-Simpson controversy was going on, a new convection hypothesis was independently suggested by Gaston Grenet in 1947 and Bernard Vonnegut in 1953 to explain the dipole structure of thundercloud. In this model the positive ions formed by the corona discharge from the sharp objects on the surface of the earth are carried upward by warm air (convection) like the belt of the Van de Graaf Generator [3]. After reaching the upper region of the cloud, these positive ions attract the negative ions above the cloud which are formed by ionizing cosmic rays. The negative ions enter the cloud and quickly attach themselves to the water droplets and ice crystals, thereby forming a negatively charged “screening layer”. By hypothesis the down drafts at the cloud periphery then carry downward the negatively charged particles from the screening layer. This leads to the formation of positive dipole [3] structure (Fig.2). It may be mentioned here that both precipitation and convection hypotheses were developed to explain the positive dipole structure known by then. They, however, faced serious limitations in explaining the tripole structure observed subsequently.

It is now established beyond doubt that the basic structure of thundercloud is not dipolar but tripolar [3]. The important feature of the tripole structure is described here with reference to Fig.3. There is a main region of negative charge in the central zone with one region of positive charge above it and a second smaller region of positive charge below it. The remarkable features of the negatively charged main layer are having pancake [4] shape with its vertical thickness less than a kilometre. On the other hand, the main negative charge extends several kilometres or more horizontally.

The main negative charge is located at an altitude of 6 km. Very large electric fields are seen in thunder clouds at upper and lower boundaries of this negatively charged layer. The upper region of positive charge is more diffused and may extend vertically several kilometers up to the top height of the clouds. The lower region of positive charge, on the other hand, is so small that the electric field at the surface is frequently dominated by the main negative charge. One additional feature is also seen in many clouds where a thin layer of negative charge of about 100 meters thick is found above the upper positive region. The tripolar structure of the cloud resolved the long-standing Wilson – Simpson controversy.

Wilson made electric field measurement from a distance where the small positive region at the base of the cloud was overwhelmed by the strong negative field produced by the main negative charge. On the other hand, Simpson’s observations were carried out right under the cloud where his instruments detected the lower positive region directly above him. Since the higher negative central region screened the top positive region, Simpson concluded that the negative charge was the upper most. Both the precipitation hypothesis and the convection hypothesis faced problems in justifying the formation of a tripolar structure in cloud. It may be seen from the following discussion that none of the two hypotheses is sound enough to explain the observed natural phenomena.

The strength and weakness of convection and precipitation models

Both the models have many weaknesses and thus, when any one model fails to provide answer for some fact, the other becomes a string of hope. This is discussed systematically in the following analysis.

The naive precipitation model was basically developed to explain the positive dipole structure and it miserably fails to explain the tripolar structure. Not only the model requires modification but also the micro physics of charge transfer remains to be explained.
The convection model appears more natural towards explaining the tripolar structure as it assumes a corona discharge from the sharp objects on the earth which permits the formation of lower positive charge at the base of the cloud. However, the actual flux measurement suggests that it may be an order of magnitude smaller than that required to justify the rate of charging.
When the flux measurement did not agree with the convection model, the precipitation hypothesis gained its importance with several modifications. Modifications were made primarily to explain the lower positive charge. Simpson found the rain drops ordinarily carring positive charge. His studies on rain fall gave an empirical knowledge that larger droplets selectively acquire positive charge on break up. He then implanted this empirical knowledge in explaining the lower positive charge by assuming that the precipitating water droplets in the thundercloud also fragmented near the base of the cloud which then accounted for the lower positive charge. This model again failed like the convection model when the measurement was made under the main negative charge region of the thundercloud. Measurement showed that the charges in precipitated particles are substantially greater than those produced by water fall fragmentation. It was also noted that the positively charged particles that fell below the main negative charge were ice particles having little scope for fragmentation.
When charging by fragmentation did not succeed, then charging by ice melting was considered. Laboratory experiment in 1940’s showed that ice particles picked up strong positive charge in the course of melting. It may be noted here that ice melts only at an altitude below 4000 meters. Hence, this model failed to justify any pickup of positive charge at altitudes over 4000 meters.
Collision between ice crystals and gaupel particles was then anticipated for the precipitation model. Many investigations have shown that the polarity of charge, transferred to the particles is strongly temperature dependent. Below a critical temperature, negative charge is transferred and at higher temperatures, positive charge is transferred. This critical temperature is the charge reversal temperature. The lower positive charge region in the tripolar structure remains above the charge reversal temperature. Thus the temperature dependent charge transfer has some stand in explaining the lower positive charge. This model does not invoke any convection which is an important part of the cloud dynamics. There is substantial evidence that thunderstorms are regions of vigorous up-drafts and down-drafts indicating that convection is indisputably present. For this reason, many think that the convection hypothesis is perhaps close to reality.

It was observed that the maximum lightning flash rates are associated with upward motion of gaupel and hail stones above the main negative region. This again contradicts the naive precipitation model where the downward motions of gaupel particles are assumed.

The argument was in favour of the convection hypothesis and it was thought that strong convection currents being the characteristic feature of thunderstorms is probably linked to cloud electrification. The convection hypothesis, however, does not predict the screening layer above the upper positive zone.

Charge structure in low atmosphere and in clouds- a new concept

Electric charge field is seen to exist both in disturbed and fair-weather condition as a global phenomenon and it has a highly organized structure. Though the charge phenomenon is quite conspicuous during the storm, the presence of electrical field is quite common in fair-weather condition. Thus, one can’t attribute the cause of electrification in lower atmosphere as an exclusive feature of thundercloud. Even though the rain clouds are always active at some part of the world, it is difficult to explain the exact nature of fair-weather electric field and the air earth current. Hence, the mechanism of cloud charging does not essentially confine to the cloud pockets only. Rather, it (charge structure in cloud) could be interpreted as a local modification of global fair-weather charge field structure due to the variation in dielectric property of atmospheric medium (air) with the formation of cloud pockets. It may be mentioned here that the electrical conductivity of cloud is one order lower than that of the air.

So far, our attempts to understand the electric structure in cloud were to discover a charging mechanism (charge separation in micro scale) and find a means for the migration of charge (charge separation in macro scale) by attributing to a cause from and within the thundercloud and rainfall. Events like cloud precipitation, convection etc. those associated with the thundercloud could not provide success in bringing up a satisfactory model even though nearly two and a half centuries have already passed since the first identification of electric discharge in thunderclouds. Perhaps the present approach to understand the cloud electrification by attributing the cause from within and around the cloud is not in the right track. The precipitation theory makes use of many conjectures, the physics of which in micro domain is yet to be established. For example, the conjecture that collision of precipitated particles with the mist of water droplet and ice crystals would result in transfer of negative charge to the precipitated particles and positive charge to the mist, needs to be substantiated using physics. The convection theory does not take into account the charge forces when the charges of one polarity are accumulated by convection. It may be mentioned here that the convection process is carried out by the action of gravity which is by far weaker than the charge interaction forces. It thus becomes impossible to make cloud charging by convection. On the other hand, any development of electric charge in cloud by some other mechanism would make a vertical movement of the cloud causing convection and storm. It is not surprising to find that a definite electric potential favours precipitation rather than precipitation causing electric charging of cloud. This fact may be analysed from the failure of large number of experiments to make artificial rain fall by seeding.

It would be preferable to understand first the fair-weather electric structure as it is a global feature and then interpret the local charge phenomena in the thundercloud as a specific modification of the global charge feature under local conditions.

Global charge structure

It is well known that the earth is negatively charged with respect to the atmosphere above. No satisfactory answer is available for this. Thus, we do not know as to how the earth is negatively charged? It is not the case for the earth alone. We do not know as yet, how the electrons or the protons are negatively charged. These require deeper understanding of the charge itself, and its bearing with mass etc? May be, a clear understanding of the mechanism of the negative charging of the earth will give us the clue to know how in electron and proton are characteristically charged. The objective of this paper being only to analyse the charge structure in the thundercloud, we will confine the discussion to the subject.

The surface (crust) of the earth being negatively charged, it organises a charge field structure with alternate positive and negative ionospheric charge shells [1]. These charged shells may be called primary charge shells. The first positive primary charge shell is located at a height of 47 km from the surface of the earth. This positively charged shell also contains negatively charged particles but less in number. Between the negatively charged earth and the positively charged atmosphere (ionosphere) there exists a potential gradient (electric field). Due to this impressed vertical electric field, the negative and positive charges in the atmospheric medium cause further polarisation resulting formation of electrically charged sub-shells. It is also said that the spacing of the sub-shells exhibit an outwardly expanding order of spacing starting from the surface of the earth or any other main shells [1]. The sub-shell again being composed of sub-sub-shells and so on, a complex electric structure is developed up to 47 km (Fig.4). Ions formed by any energetic process migrate to their equilibrium position by the action of gravity and charge forces. The new charge shell, sub-shell concept in the atmosphere allows a free-standing atmosphere without getting settle down to the surface. This electric structure corresponds to the polarised field in fair-weather condition. Like the movement of ionospheric charges in primary shells responding to the attraction from the sun and the moon, the motion of charge particle in sub-shells also occurs. We shall now examine how this fair-weather potential assumes a higher charge density within the thundercloud.

The electrical resistivity is one order higher for the cloud than that of air. Thus, the cloud remains almost electrically isolated from the other part of the atmospheric shell. The horizontal electrical conductivity being poor in the cloud, the charges do not migrate globally as it happens in atmospheric air. The absorption of solar radiation causing photo ionisation increases in cloud as compared to clear air. The excess ions migrating to their respective equilibrium position in different shells, sub shells, sub-sub-shells increase the charge density significantly as the horizontal conduction is poor within the cloud. The vertical conduction is still more difficult as it has to overcome additionally the polarised potential barrier. Once the potential increases significantly in a disproportionate manner in excess of the equilibrium value, it ruptures the dielectric medium giving rise to an electric discharge. This discharge takes place vertically following the path of least resistance. Once the electric discharge takes place, the charge potential in the shells, sub-shells … abruptly change due to temporary rupture of the dielectric barrier. This causes violent vertical movement of the charged cloud resulting in storms. Changes in the electric potential caused by electric discharge promote precipitation of the cloud. Thus, neither convection nor precipitation is fundamental to cloud charging mechanism; they are only the after effects of electric discharge.

Ionisation within the cloud can be accounted for by the solar ionising radiation, collision process within the cloud, ionizing radiation from ground based nuclear material, ionising radiation from the atmospheric dusts of nuclear materials, cosmic rays, corona discharge from the sharp objects and high voltage transmission lines etc. But once the neutral atoms and molecules are ionized, the ions move vertically to their respective equilibrium positions in shell, sub-shell locations. This is how the positively and negatively charged cloud layers confirm to the definite heights determined by the global charge structure (Fig.3, Fig.4 and Fig.8.5). Now perhaps it may be feasible to make artificial rainfall by triggering the lightning discharge among the shell-sub shell under suitable charge conditions. One can as well draw power from the atmospheric charged shell by linking the shells/sub-shells through a narrow ion column generated by sending an appropriate laser beam from the ground.

One would ordinarily expect all lightning discharge to take place towards late afternoon when the cloud charging reaches a maximum potential. However, there are variations in this timing because of the unevenness of the negatively charged surface of the earth. The mountains and forests when come under the cloud, the triggering of electric discharge also takes place.

Conclusion

The earth as a negatively charged body explains the cloud dynamics more clearly. As reported in earlier articles, other charge phenomena such as an ionosphere, aurora, geomagnetism, Van-Allen Belt, magnetospheres are also understood in a better way by assuming the earth to be negatively charged. In view of this the solar system has a closer resemblance with the atomic system as far as the electric charge and the discrete orbit is concerned. It appears a common universal dynamic for the atomic and solar system may be feasible in future.

References

Williams, E.R., Sc. American, Nov.1988, p.48.
Ibid. p.49.
Ibid, p.51.
Ibid, p.50.
Ibid, p.48.

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Signature of Science in Lotus Leaf

Kamala Kanta Jena — Mon, 25 Dec 2023 12:18:14 +0000

Abstract

The amazing and unbelievable self-cleaning property of Lotus leaf is widely cited in various books, dialects and different sections of our culture including Bhagavad Gita. Modern scientific research agrees to this remarkable property of the Lotus leaf. This amazing natural phenomenon promotes scientists to think of self-cleaning coatings on smart cloth, automobiles, optical devices, window glasses, solar panels and many more. The present discussion also admits that the nature has given birth to science that helps us understand natural phenomena.

Key words- Lotus effect, superhydrophobic surface, angle of contact, force of adhesion, nanoparticle.

Introduction

The 10th verse in Chapter-5 of Bhagavad Gita says :

ब्रह्मण्याधाय कर्माणि सङ्गं त्यक्त्वा करोति य: |
लिप्यते न स पापेन पद्मपत्रमिवाम्भसा || 10||

Brahmaṇyādhāya karmāṇi saṅgaṁ tyaktvā karoti yaḥ
Lipyate na sa pāpena padma-patram ivāmbhasā

The lines teach us the fact that he who acts placing all actions in the eternal Brahman, giving up attachment, is unaffected by sin like the Lotus by water. A Lotus leaf grows in water but it is never moistened by water. In the similar fashion, the person is untouched by sin like the Lotus leaf that comes out dry from inside the water. This amazing and unbelievable property of lotus leaf is widely cited in the various books, dialects and different sections of our culture including the Bhagvad Gita. The non-sticky clean surface of lotus leaf has been widely studied by researchers. In fact there exists science behind the amazingly non-sticky surface of Lotus leaf. The structure of the amazing surface has been analysed scientifically. The researchers have tried to mimic the morphology of the leaf to comprehend the magical property. Ultimately, they have succeeded to manufacture superhydrophobic surface by mimicking the magical surface morphology of the Lotus leaf.

Illustration

A Lotus leaf grows in water and mud, but it is never moistened by the water or mud. Apart from the Lotus leaf, there are a number of natural water-repellent leaves. But the Lotus leaf is recognised by the Bhagavad Gita as the leaf with the highest cleanliness. Today’s research also agrees to this remarkable property of the Lotus leaf. The Lotus plant in modern research has been considered to have excellent water non-wettability. That is why the lotus plant is recognised as the “King Plant” among its entire category [1].

There exists interesting scientific theory behind non-wettability of the Lotus leaf. The wetting capacity of a liquid numerically depends upon its contact angle with the solid surface. The contact angle is defined as the angle subtended between a tangent drawn to the curved liquid surface at the point of contact and the solid surface present inside that liquid. The contact angle is different for different pairs of solid and liquid. We observe that water wets clean glass. The angle of contact between glass surface and water surface is around zero to 8°. The mercury cannot wet glass surface and its angle of contact is around 135°. Therefore, a liquid with numerically small angle of contact can wet a solid surface. The superhydrophobic surface of Lotus leaf possesses extremely high contact angle with water and it is greater than 150°. Thus, the angular magnitude agrees to the superhydrophobic nature of the leaf.

The magical surface of the Lotus leaf has been broadly investigated by the modern researchers and extensively applied on variety of substrates for potential self-cleaning. Although many kinds of superhydrophobic surfaces mimicking the lotus leaf’s structure have also been studied, the lotus leaf has been proved to be the best natural superhydrophobic surface. It also provides comprehensive discussion on modern research carried out in the field of artificial superhydrophobic surfaces. The self-cleaning property in the field of modern research refers to the “Lotus effect” [2] [3].

Nature is the creator of science and scientists. It is the largest laboratory for research, which laboratory is freely available to all types of researchers. It helps biologist, physicist, chemist, mathematician, as well as engineer in their field of higher study. Nature is fantastic and always ready to teach us without hesitation. About 460 crore years back our Earth was a ball of hot gases with no living creature. Nature developed living nanostructures around 350 crore years back as the result of evolution. The materials and devices in nano-scale have been developed today by precisely imitating the chemical components, surface structures and magical properties present in natural systems [4-6], although the ‘perfect mimicry’ is not possible. Nature has a good number of plants leaves whose surfaces exhibit excellent water-repellent properties [7-9]. However, the Lotus leaf among them has been popularly regarded as a symbol of purity in our culture for over 2,000 years due to its ability to remain clean.

The Lotus leaf remains clean even in dirty-muddy ponds. The phenomena in which water drops on the leaf-surface bead up like shiny balls are worth watching. The droplets cannot wet the surface, but quickly roll off along with dirt. The science behind such phenomena is related to the force of cohesion and adhesion. The force of attraction between similar molecules is known as force of cohesion, whereas, the force of attraction between dissimilar molecules is known as force of adhesion. The force of adhesion between the water droplet and dust particle is greater than the force of adhesion between the leaf surface and dust particle. That is why the water droplet can collect and carry the dust particles from the surface of leaf, and hence the surface remains clean.

Two German botanists, W. Barthlott and C. Neinhuis, in 1997 have illustrated the unique dual scale micro/nanostructure of the Lotus leaves with the help of a scanning electron microscope (SEM). They have also studied the chemical material present on the leaf [2]. The study of unusual surface wettability of leaf can be realised by controlling the surface geometrical microstructure and low surface energy of the surface. The research on such an amazing property leads to implementation of self-cleaning coatings on automobiles, optical devices, window glasses and solar panels. The technique enables us to manufacture anti-fogging coatings, anti-corrosive coatings and anti-icing surface. In the present scenario, the Lotus leaf-like micro/nanoscale binary structure is well accepted in developing superhydrophobic surfaces [10, 11].

The application of nanotechnology to manufacture smart cloth is no doubt an imitation of unusual superhydrophobic surfaces. The way we keep our clothes clean, unsoiled and bright is expensive and time consuming. It needs soap, detergent, washing powder, washing machine and hot water. That too there is chance of colour fading during wash. Therefore, sophisticated washing materials are required for deep cleaning without colour fading. All these problems can be solved by adopting self-cleaning superhydrophobic surface of the clothes. The provision of nano-coating on the clothes can keep the clothes clean without wash. It is because the dust and dirt particles are much bigger than the nanoparticles.

Conclusion

The notion of Lotus effect and superhydrophobic surface is originated from nature, especially from the Lotus leaf. In fact, nature has given birth to science, although science helps us understand natural phenomena. Innumerable phenomena occur in the universe every moment. But we are capable of sensing and understanding a few of them. Scientists are truly unable to explain each and every phenomenon taking place in nature. New theories are formulated and coming into picture in order to explain both the touched and untouched problems. Research community should welcome new theories formulated for explaining various natural phenomena. Of course, a theory is subjected to be modified or even rejected if it fails to explain the phenomena consistently and logically.

Reference

Sanjay S. Latthe et al., Molecules 2014, 19, 4256-4283.
W. Barthlott and C. Neinhuis, Planta 1997, 202, 1-8.
C. Neinhuis and W. Barthlott, Ann. Bot. 1997, 79, 667.
F. Xia and L. Jiang, Adv. Mater. 2008, 20, 2842–2858.
N. Huebsch and D. J. Mooney, Nature 2009, 462, 426–432.
X. Hou, W. Guo and L. Jiang, Chem. Soc. Rev. 2011, 40, 2385–2401.
D. Quéré and M. Reyssat, Philos. Trans. R. Soc. A 2008, 366, 1539–1556.
K. Liu, X. Yao and L. Jiang, Chem. Soc. Rev. 2010, 39, 3240–3255.
K. Koch, B. Bhushan and W. Barthlott, Progr. Mater. Sci. 2009, 54, 137–178.
S. Nishimoto and B. Bhushan, Rsc Adv. 2013, 3, 671–690.
A.V. Rao, S. S. Latthe, H. Hirashima et al., J. Colloid Interf. Sci. 2009, 332, 484–490.

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Journal Vol 1 Archives - Institute of Philosophy of Nature

Divine Harmony: Unveiling the Cosmic Maestro

Abstract

The Laws of Nature: A Symphony of Precision

The Cosmic Blueprint: Logical Points and Consequences

A Rational Perspective: Acknowledging the Divine Wisdom

Unveiling the Cosmic Tapestry: A call to Reverence

The Grandeur of DNA: A code of Life

The Importance of Acknowledging the Lawgiver: A Logical Foundation

Conclusion – A Symphony of Purpose

Journey of Human Mind and Intellect in Search of Truth and Reality

Abstract

Conclusion

Reference

Understanding Global Warming from Vedic Perspective

Introduction

Warming on the earth: Modern view

Warming on the earth: Vedic View

Sources of Geothermal Energy

Discussion

The Vedic Climate Model

Are GHGs the real cause of increase in global warming?

Geothermal energy is the cause of cyclones, earthquackes:

Solution to the challenge of GW

Conclusion

References

Charge Potential Variation on the Earth during Harmattan Dust Haze and The Dynamics of Dust Particles

Abstract

Measurement record during the harmattan period

Harmattan effect during december 1966 to 1967

Some questions are yet to be answered

A new analysis for the charge activity during the harmattan

References

Analysis of Earth Current And The Nature of Variation of Electric Potential of The Earth

Abstract

Nature of the earth current

Earth current storms

Solar diurnal variations

Lunar diurnal variation

State of understanding of the earth current

Towards a possible mechanism for earth current

Analysis of earth current – a new concept

References

The Coma of Comets and The New Interpretation of The Extranuclear Structure of The Solar System

Abstract

Introduction

Present understanding

Analysis of possible dynamics: a new concept.

TABLE -1

TABLE -2

Conclusion

References

Transit of Halley’s Comet and Identification of The Shell Structure in Solar System

Abstract

Introduction

Sudden changes in coma of halley’s comet

Changes in the features of the ion-tail of comets

Conclusion

References

Extrapolation of Bode’s Law Towards Unravelling The Mysteries of The Solar System

Abstract

Introduction

Observation of quantum correlation for planetary discrete orbits – a new finding:

TABLE-1

BODE’S LAW

PLANET DISTANCES OF PLANETS FROM SUN

(SCALE 10 UNITS = 1 au = 1.494 x 108 kms)

TABLE-2

ORBITAL DISTANCES OF SATELLITES OF JUPITER

New mathematical correlation of orbits and sub-orbits.

Limiting values of the integers n and l

TABLE-3 [3]

PERCENTAGE DEVIATION IN THE PREDICTED DISTANCES OF THE PLANETS AND MAJOR ASTEROIDS FROM THE SUN

TABLE-4

PERCENTAGE DEVIATION IN THE PREDICTED DITANCES OF THE SATELLITES of JUPITER

TABLE-5

PERCENTAGE DEVIATION IN THE PREDICTED DISTANCES OF THE SATELLITES OF SATURN

TABLE-6

PERCENTAGE DEVIATION IN THE PREDICTED DISTANCES OF THE RINGS OF SATURN

TABLE-7

(SCALE 10 UNITS = 1 au = 1.494 x 10⁸ kms)

TABLE-3 ^[3]