Niranjan Barik, Author at Institute of Philosophy of Nature

Ancient Indian Contribution to The Field of Astronomy, Chemistry and Metallurgy

Niranjan Barik — Sat, 25 Jul 2026 08:41:49 +0000

Abstract

Ancient India was a great country with one of the great ancient civilisations. When the entire world was in complete darkness India was shining as a golden sparrow in the horizon of knowledge. However, centuries of foreign invasion and political rule over the land the present generation have mostly lost contact of its rich heritage. The purpose of a series of articles being presented here is to remind and bring to the forefront the ancient glory of this vast nation. In a previous article we have covered ancient India’s contribution to the field of Mathematics and Physics. Here in this article, we are presenting the same in the field of Astronomy, Chemistry and Metallurgy.

Astronomy

Ancient India’s contributions to the field of astronomy are well known and quite well documented. Indian astronomy has a long history stretching from pre-historic Vedic period to modern times. Some of the earliest roots of Indian astronomy can even be dated to the period of Indus Valley civilization or earlier. Astronomy like Mathematics had an important part in its Vedic religious tradition to meet the requirement of appropriate spatio-temporal calculations based on astronomical observations for the correct performance of religious rites. Thus, the Shulva Sutras, the texts dedicated to altar construction; discusses advanced mathematics and basic astronomy. The oldest known text Vedanga Jyotisha, written by Lagadha (1400-1200 BCE) details several astronomical attributes generally applied for timing social and religious events. It includes details of astronomical calculation based on observation of the Sun, Moon and the Nakshyatras (constellations) according to the rules established for empirical observations. Rig Vedic rishis had the knowledge about the constellations (star-groups) called Nakshyatras which are 27 (or 28) in numbers and the moon gets conjoined with one each of these star-groups each night. The fact that the 28th nakshyatra ‘Abhijit’ is mentioned infrequently means that Vedic Rishis knew that the sidereal month was between 27 and 28 days. In other words, the approximate Solar year of 360 days was divided into 12 lunar months of 27 days (according to the Vedic text Taittiriya Samhita 4.4.10.1-3) or 28 days (according to Atharva Veda 19.7.1). Time was reckoned by the position marked off in the constellations on the ecliptic in which the Moon rises daily in the course of one lunation (the period from new Moon to new Moon) and the Sun rises in the course of one year. Each of these constellations (nakshyatras) measure an arc of 13°20′ of the ecliptic circle. The positions of the Moon were directly observable and those of the Sun inferred from Moon’s position at full Moon, when the Sun is on the opposite side of the Moon. The position of the Sun at midnight was calculated from the nakshyatra that culminated on the meridian at that time, the Sun then being in opposition to that nakshyatra. Each solar year was also divided into twelve synodic months of 29 or 30 days. With the knowledge that a five-year yuga contained 1830 sidereal days, the resulting discrepancy was resolved by the intercalation of a leap month called Adhimasa to make the beginning of the Sun’s ayanaansa fall in the correct months. According to Vedanga Jyotisha, the Sun and the Moon conjoined with Vashava (the nakshyatra presently known by the name Dhanistha) in the month of Magha proceed Northwards (uttarayana) and at the middle of Sarpa (Aslesa) in the month of Sravana, they proceed southwards (Dakshinayana). The beginning of a yuga is counted from the beginning of uttarayana in the shuklapakshya of Magha, when the Moon and the Sun are conjoined with the nakshyatra Dhanistha. Although the exact rule of intercalation for Adhimasa had not been made explicit in Vedanga Jyotisha, the relation of a yuga of 5 solar years to 62 synodic months and 1830 sidereal days was well known. Also, well known at that time about the twelve signs of the zodiac (rasi) along with the twenty-seven constellations (nakshyatras) and seven planets. The first important study and analysis of Indian Astronomy was done by Jean sylvain Bailly (1736-1793), who in his book “Traits de Astronomic Indianne et Orientale” published in 1787 had commented that the Indian Astronomical observations documented in their observational tables were based on quite accurate observations, some of which were made as early as 4300 BC. The great mathematician and astronomer Laplace who having discovered the inequality in the motion of Jupiter and Saturn, wrote in 1787: “I find by my theory, that at the Indian epoch of 3101 BC, the apparent and annual mean motion of Saturn was 12º 13 14 and the Indian tables make it 12º 13 14. In like manner, 1 find the annual and apparent mean motion of Jupiter at that epoch was 30° 20 42° precisely as in Indian astronomy.” (As quoted in an article by J. Burgess under the title ‘Notes on Hindu Astronomy and the History of our knowledge of it’ in J. Royal Asiatic Society. 177-761,1893).

Indian astronomy flowered in the 5th to 6th century CE, with Aryabhyatta (476-550 CE), whose treatise Aryabhattiya represented the pinnacle of astronomical knowledge at that time. Its contents were preserved to some extent in the works of Varahamihira (550 CE), Bhaskara I (129 CE) Brahmagupta (598-668 CE) and others. Aryabhatta explicitly mentioned in his work that Earth rotates about its own axis, thereby causing what appears to be an apparent westward motion of the stars. He suggested further that the Earth was spherical in shape with a circumference of 24835 miles (39,967 km) which works out to give the radius of earth as R = 6362 km. In fact, now it is well known from measurement by orbiting spacecraft that the earth is almost, but not quite, a perfect sphere having its equatorial radius as 6378 km and its polar radius is 6357 km, which are not far too different from Aryabhatta’s estimate. Apart from his significant contributions to trigonometry, arithmetic and algebra that he developed for his accurate mathematical calculations of astronomical events like solar eclipse and lunar eclipse; he also mentioned that the cause behind the shining of the moon is the reflected sunlight. Following Aryabhatta’s principles and methodologies, his followers mostly from South India carried forward his works to further heights. Some of these works are worth mentioning here as follows.

Brahmagupta (598-668 CE), well known for his contributions of mathematics and astronomy wrote Brahmasphuta Siddhanta in 628 CE, which had been translated into Arabic in 771 CE providing a major impact on Islamic mathematics and astronomy subsequently. Brahmagupta reinforced Aryabhatta’s idea of a day to begin from the midnight of the previous day. He also calculated the instantaneous motion of planets to give the correct equation for parallax and also provided valuable information relating to the computation of eclipses. He also theorized that all bodies with mass are attracted towards earth. Varahamihir (505 CE), who studied Indian Astronomy along with several other contemporary knowledge systems, had mentioned and compiled in his ‘Pancha-Siddhantika’; one of the most ancient Sanskrit treatises on Indian astronomy; Surya Siddhanta. Surya Siddhanta describes rules to calculate the motions of various planets and the Moon relative to various constellations and calculates the orbits of various astronomical bodies. The authorship of this ancient text is not known exactly. According to al-Biruni, the 11th century Persian Scholar, the second verse of the first chapter of Surya Siddhanta attributes the authorship to Mayasura, father of ‘Mandodari’ and father-in-law of Ravana around two million years ago at the end of the first golden age of Hindu mythology, the Satya Yuga. As per the legend, the contents were dictated to Mayasura through someone named ‘Lata’ an emissary of the Sun-God. However, the text is known from a 15th century palm-leaf manuscript and several newer manuscripts. It was recomposed or revised in 500 CE from an earlier text by this name. The text believed in the geocentric model with earth as the stationary globe around which the sun, moon along with other planets orbit. It calculates earths’ diameter to be 8000 miles (compared to its modern value 7928 miles), the diameter of moon as 2400 miles (actual value 2160 miles) and the distance between the moon and the earth to be 258000 miles (now known to vary between 221,500 to 252,700 miles). Surya Siddhanta represented a functional system that made reasonably accurate predictions. The text was translated into Arabic and had its impact on medieval Islamic astronomy.

Bhaskara-I in 269 CE authored the astronomical texts like Mahabhaskariya, Laghubhaskariya and Aryabhattiyabhasya as a commentary on Aryabhatta’s ‘Aryabhattiya’. In these treatises, Bhaskara-I discussed the planetary longitudes, heliacal rising and setting of planets, conjunctions among planets and stars, solar and lunar eclipses and the phases of the moon.

Following the works of Aryabhatta, Brahmagupta, and Bhaskara-I; Lalla in 8th century CE authored ‘Sisyadhivruddhida, consisting two parts Grahadhyaya and Goladhyaya. Grahadhyaya deals with planetary calculations, determination of the mean and true planets, rising and setting of planets, eclipses, planetary and astral conjunctions etc. Goladhyaya deals with graphical representation of planetary motion, astronomical instruments used and also emphasizes on corrections to and rejection as well of the flawed principles. His works were followed by later astronomers like Bhaskara-II (1114 CE) who was heading the astronomical observatory in Ujjain at that time. He authored ‘Siddhanta Siromani’ and reported on his observation of planetary positions, conjunctions, eclipses as well as the astronomical equipment used in his observation.

Notable amongst many other astronomers of the fifteenth century was Nilakantha Somyaji (1544 CE) of the Kerala School of astronomy and mathematics who is worth mentioning here. In his ‘Tantrasangraha’, he revised Aryabhatta’s model for planets Mercury and Venus. His equation of the center for these planets remained the most accurate ones, until the time of Johannes Kepler in the 17th century. He also authored an Aryabhattiyabhasya, a commentary on Aryabhatta’s Aryabhattiya, where he developed his own computational system based on a partially heliocentric planetary model in which Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn orbit the Sun and Sun along with these orbiting planets in turn orbits the Earth. This was similar to the model proposed by Tycho-Brahe in the late 16th century, Nilakantha’s system, however, was mathematically more efficient than the Tychonic system due to its correct equation of the center and longitudinal motion of Mercury and Venus. Most astronomers of Kerala School of Astronomy who followed him accepted his planetary model. In this tradition, with a long chain of astronomers of India, Samanta Chandrasekhar (1835-1904) was the last link during a period spanning over a millennium and half. He was probably the last naked eye astronomer of Siddhantic tradition, popularly known as Pathani Samanta in Orissa. He worked in astronomy following traditional methods, completely unaware of the telescope, and using handy tools like bamboo poles and sticks, all fabricated by himself. He recorded his own study and observations in an invaluable classic treatise ‘Siddhanta Darpana’ in 1895. Siddhanta Darpan has been composed in fine metrical Sanskrit verses. It contains many original contributions in observation, calculation, instrumentation as well as theory and the models demonstrating appreciable improvement over the earlier classics like Surya Siddhanta and Siddhanta Siromani. The results of his observations are often comparable with modern data and his predictions in positional astronomy are in fair agreement with actual occurrence of astronomical events even today. (P.C. Nayak and L. Satpathy in, Bulletin of Astronomical Soc. India (1998), 26,33-49).

This discussion finally brings us to highlight some of the ancient Indian devices used for astronomical observations. One such common device was gnomon known as sanku, in which the shadow of a vertical rod on a horizontal plane was observed and measured to ascertain the cardinal direction, the latitude of the observation points and the observation time. This device finds mention in the works of Varahamihira, Aryabhatta, Bhaskara and Brahmagupta etc. Similarly, the Yasti-Yantra, a cross-staff, was used by the time of Bhaskara-II. This device could vary from a simple stick to V-shaped staffs designed specifically to determine angles with the help of calibrated scale. The gola-yantra, the Indian armillary sphere finds mention in the works of Aryabhatta. Gola-dipika, a detailed treatise composed by Paramesvara between 1380 and 1460 CE, deals with globes and armillary spheres. The Indian armillary spheres were based on equatorial coordinates whereas the Greek armillary spheres used elliptical coordinates. Indian armillary spheres also had an elliptical hoop. Bhaskara-II in the 12th Century invented the Phalaka-yantra to determine time from the Sun’s altitude. This consisted of a rectangular board with a pin and an index arm. Kapala-yantra was an equatorial Sun-dial instrument used to determine Sun’s azimuth. Padmanava invented a nocturnal polar rotation instrument consisting of a rectangular board with a slit and a set of pointers with concentric graduated circles. Time and other astronomical quantities could be calculated by adjusting the slit to the directions of Alpha and Beta Ursa Minor. Its backside was made as a quadrant with a plumb and an index arm. Thirty parallel lines were drawn inside the quadrant and trigonometrical calculations were done graphically after determining the Sun’s altitude with the help of the plumb whereas time was calculated graphically with the help of the index arm.

There are several such instruments still surviving in this epoch at the observatories built by Maharaja of Jaipur, Sawal Jai Singh (1688-1743 CE) in the beginning eighteenth century. Except for the observatory in Mathura; rest of them in Delhi, Jaipur, Ujjain and Banaras are still extant today. Notable amongst all these instruments based on Indian and Islamic astronomy is the Samrat-yantra which is a huge Sundial consisting of a triangular gnomon wall and a pair of quadrants towards the east and west of the gnomon wall. The quadrants had been graduated to record time.

Chemistry & Metallurgy

Development in Chemical Science in ancient India was not limited to an abstract level like Physics, but found in a variety of practical activities. Chemical techniques developed in ancient India can be traced back all the way to Indus Valley or Harappan civilization (3rd millennium BCE). According to Acharya Prafulla Chandra Ray (1861-1944), the eminent Indian Chemist and a historian of Chemistry, development of chemical techniques can be recognized to have taken place in five stages (i) the pre-Vedic period up to 1500 BCE (ii) the Vedic and Ayurvedic period up to 700 CE (iii) transitional period from 700 CE to 100 CE (iv) the Tantric period from 700 CE to 1300 CE and finally (v) the Iatro chemical period from 1300 CE to 1600 CE. However, we would focus our attention more on the chemical techniques of the pre-Vedic and Vedic period only.

Pre-Vedic Indians were acquainted with the art of baked and burnt clay pottery and dyeing them with two or more colours. This needed the construction of open and closed kilns. These potteries consisted of mainly wheel made wares in various shapes, sizes and colour out of the well-levigated alluvium of Indus. The colour and other characteristics of the potteries depended upon the composition of the clay and techniques of firing under either oxidizing or reducing conditions. The Harppan Indians also experimented with various mortars and cements made of burnt limestone, gypsum and mica among other things. Finely crushed quartz when burnt produced faience, a synthetic material which when coated with silica (Perhaps fused with Soda) with addition of copper oxide; it produced a shiny turquoise glaze. Faience was then shaped into various ornaments and figurines. Addition of iron oxide or manganese oxide etc. resulted in different colours. The Harappan artisans must have had the knowledge of processing and the proportions of several naturally occurring chemical substances as mentioned above. The craftsmen of that period were also highly skilled in the art of shaping and polishing precious and semi-precious stones in preparing ornamental beads.

During the period earlier than 1500 BCE, as has been mentioned in Rig Veda, ancient Indians knew the process of fermentation to prepare various fermented drinks. Soma juice from the stems of soma plant was highly extolled and was considered as a divine drink. Madhu and Suraa brewed from barley grain also find mention in Rig Veda. Curd, the fermented milk was an important food item. Woolen cloths and garments were often dyed red, purple or brown with certain natural vegetable colouring matters. Vedic period is also associated with a type of pottery now known as ‘Painted grey ware’. This ceramic is a thin gray deluxe ware, mostly wheel-made, well burnt, glossy and richly painted. In the eastern part of Gangetic planes earthen black polished wares were also found along with plenty of iron objects. Glass beads dating back to the 10th century BC have been discovered. Evidences for notable feat of excellence of flourishing glass industry at that epoch had been found by archaeologists at more than 30 sites which include Taxila in present Pakistan, Hastinapur and Kopia in Uttar Pradesh, Nalanda in Bihar, Ujjain in Madhya Pradesh, Brahmagiri in Karnataka etc. The glass objects include coloured beads, glass vessels in green and blue colours, bangles, ear-reels, eye-beads etc. The glass makers of this period were no doubt very skilful in controlling the temperature of fusion, moulding, annealing, blotching and gold foiling. The chemical composition of a typical glass specimen from Kopia site in Uttar Pradesh was found as follows. It had silica 66.6%, alumina 7%, alkalis (Na₂O) 21.7%, ferric Oxide 1.6%, lime 2.4%, manganese oxide 0.07% and traces of titania and magnesia. Koutilya’s Artha Shastra of 3rd or 4th century BC, has a lot of information on prevailing chemical practices. Apart from mines and minerals, one can find detailed discussions on precious stones like pearl, ruby, beryl etc. as well as of the preparation methods for the fermented juices (sugarcane, jaggery, honey, jambo, jackfruit, mango etc.) and oil extractions. Varahamihira’s Brihat Samhita of 6th century CE mentions detailed information on the preparation of various perfumes and cosmetics along with the recipes for preparation of a glutinous material to be applied on the roofs and walls of buildings. Charaka Samhita and Sushruta Samhita give account of several minerals, metals, metallic compounds, salts and fermented beverages. There are also discussions on preparation of various alkalis (khara) in three different forms such as mild (mridu), caustic (teekshna and average (madhyama). They were prepared from 25 different plants described there. Hot alkaline solutions were used to treat thin metal sheets like iron, gold or silver before incorporating them into drugs. Caustic alkalis were also used for treating surgical instruments. Will Durant has written in his ‘The story of civilization our ‘Oriental Heritage’ referring to India – “as the most skilled of the nations in such chemical industries as dyeing, tanning, soap making, glass and cement…. By the sixth century the Hindus were far ahead of Europe in industrial chemistry. They were masters of calcinations, distillation, sublimation, steaming, fixation, the production of light without heat, the mixing of anesthetic and soporitic powders, preparation of metallic salts, compounds and alloys….”.

Metallurgy was intimately linked with the developments in chemistry and industrial chemistry in India. The commonly used metals in antiquity include gold, silver, copper, tin, lead, zinc, mercury and iron. Early gold and silver ornaments from the Indian subcontinent have been found from the Indus valley sites of Mohenjodaro dating to a period of 3000 BC, which are on display in the National Museum; New Delhi. India had the deepest ancient gold mines in the Maski region of Karnataka during the 1st millennium BC. Besides this antiquity, gold was usually collected by panning alluvial sands from placer deposits. According to the Greek tales of Herodotus, gold-digging-ants in India (referring to marmots, a type of rodent found in Afghanistan) used to dig up river sand which were then panned for gold by the nearby inhabitants. In fact, such a tale can be corroborated by literary evidence in the mention of ant’s gold in epic Mahabharata. The interesting technique of granulation of gold (using surface tension of melted gold filings, tiny spherical granules of gold could be produced) in making jewellery was developed in several parts of the world around 600 BC. However, this technique was in practice in India in the late 1st millennium BC to the early Christian era. In fact, the mining and extensive use of gold, silver and copper was undertaken in the Indus valley in the third century BC. In the Vedic period extensive use was made of copper, bronze and brass for household utensils, weapons and images of worship. The image of Nataraja the God of Dance is made of five metals (Pancha-Dhatu). This technology of mixing two or more metals and producing superior alloys was well known to ancient Indians. Patanjali’s Lohasastra of second century B.C. gives elaborate description of many chemical and metallurgical processes especially the preparation of metallic salts, alloys, amalgams and the extraction and purification and assaying of metals. The discovery of aqua-regia (a mixture of nitric and hydrochloric acid to dissolve gold and platinum) is ascribed to Patanjali. Numerous specimens of weapons made of iron have been excavated, probably belonging to the 4th century BC. Iron clamps, iron stags found at Bodhagaya temple point to the knowledge of processing and manufacturing iron as early as the third century B.C. It was especially well established in the South Indian megalithic cultures of this period.

South India was a region that was renowned for metallurgy and metal works in the old days. Fine steel wires for the use as strings in musical instruments were being produced in Karnataka when the western world was using animal gut for the same purpose. Kerala was well known for its large iron smelting furnaces as well as for the specialty in making metal mirrors of Aranmula. High quality steel from Tamilnadu has been exported to all over the world since Roman times. The Konasamudram region in Andhra Pradesh was famous for producing the world renowned Wootz Steel. Wootz is the English substitute for ‘Ukku’ in Kannada and Telugu, meaning steel. Studies on Wootz indicate that it was an ultra-high carbon steel with about 1-2% carbon and was believed to have been used to fashion the Damascus sword with blades having watery patterns whose wavy streaks always glisten like a pond on whose surface wind is gliding. These swords were the best swords in the ancient world, the strongest and sharpest, sharper even than the Japanese Katans. Romans, Greeks, Arabs, Persians, Turks and Chinese imported it. Wootz steel is also known as Damascus steel which is derived from the Arabic ‘Damas’ meaning water, because of the watery designs on the blade. Ktesias at the court of Persia in 5th century BC mentions two swords made of Indian steel which the Persian King presented him.

Since iron has a high melting point of around 1550°C, it was commonly produced in the olden days by reducing the one to metal in solid state to produce bloomery iron which was then wrought to give low carbon (0.1% to 0.2% carbon) wrought iron. However, Wootz steel was produced in India in a clever way in lowering the melting point of iron. The lower the melting point, the more carbon got absorbed and high carbon steel was produced. This was done by carburizing chips of wrought iron in a closed crucible process. Wrought iron, wood and carbonaceous matter were placed in a crucible and heated in a current of hot air till the iron became red hot and plastic. It was then allowed to cool very slowly (in about 24 hrs.) until it absorbed a fixed amount (generally 1.2 to 1.8 percent) of carbon. When it is forged into a blade, the carbides in the steel form the visible pattern on the surface. In the early 1800 CE, Europeans tried their hand at reproducing Wootz on an industrial scale. Michael Faraday, the great experimenter and himself the son of a blacksmith, tried to duplicate the steel by alloying iron with a variety of metallic additions including Noble metals but failed. His failure marked the beginning of alloy steel making in the world. Wootz had been a prime motivating force in the development of metallurgical science and study of micro structures. Although iron and steel had been used for thousands of years; the role of carbon in steel as the dominant element was understood only in 1774 by Tobern Bergman in unravelling the mysteries of Wootz. The textured Damascus steel was one of the earliest materials to be examined by electron microscope in 2006, to show that it contains large amounts of carbon nanotubes. Referring to this the Nobel laureate Robert F. Curl said that carbon nanotechnology was much older than carbon nanoscience and hence nanotechnology is not new to India, when it is of raging interest to scientists world over now. But Indians had used nano materials long since unwittingly in making Damascus steel swords which were stronger and sharper.

Traditional Indian iron and steel are known to have some very special properties such as resistance to corrosion. This is substantiated by the 1600 yr old twenty-four feet high iron pillar next to the Qutub Minar in Delhi. This iron pillar belonging to the fourth fifth century CE believed to have been erected during Chandragupta Maurya’s reign, is a metallurgical wonder. This huge wrought iron pillar, 24 feet in height, 16.4 inches in diameter at the bottom, and 6 1⁄2 tons in weight has stood exposed to tropical Sun and rain for more than fifteen hundred years without showing any sign of rusting or corrosion. Evidence shows that this pillar was once a Garuda Stambha from a Vishnu temple which was plundered by Islamic invaders securing the pillar as a trophy in the Quwwat al-Islam mosque in Delhi. Made of pure iron, which even today can be produced only in small quantities by electrolysis. The pillar is believed to have been made by forging together a series of disc-shaped iron blooms. Apart from its dimensions; absence of corrosion must have its link to the high purity of wrought iron and its composition with phosphorus content and the distribution of slag. Even with today’s advances, only few foundries in the world could make this piece with none able to keep it rust free. The pillar stands today as a mute testimony to the highly advanced scientific knowledge and skill that was known and mastered by ancient Indian ironsmiths. According to Percy Brown, this pillar is a remarkable tribute to the genius and manipulative dexterity of Indian workers. The huge iron girders used in roofing the porch of temples at Puri and Konark, the ornamental gates of Somanath and the 24 feet wrought iron gun at Nurvar are also such monuments bearing eloquent testimony to the marvellous metallurgical skill attained by the ancient Indians.

Besides the production of wootz steel and corrosion free iron; another metallurgical marvel of ancient India is the extraction of Zinc. Zinc is better known as a constituent of brass than a metal in its own right. Brass having 10 percent zinc glitters like gold. The earliest brass objects in India have been found from the excavation sites at Taxila (44 BC). These brass objects had more than 35 percent zinc; this high content of zinc, according to expert metallurgists, could be put in only by direct fusion of metallic zinc and copper. Zinc smelting compared to other metals used in antiquity is very difficult, since at normal pressure it boils and volatilizes at 913°C, while to extract zinc from its oxide ore, it must be heated to about 1200°C in a furnace. As a result, it would form as a vapor in the furnace which would immediately get reoxidised and hence lost. Hence metallic zinc is seldom reported in antiquity elsewhere in the world. However, in India there is unique evidence for extensive and semi-industrial production of metallic zinc at Zawar area of Rajasthan. The Zawar process consisted of heating zinc oxide ore in an atmosphere of carbon monoxide in clay retorts arranged upside down to collect zinc vapor in a cooler chamber placed vertically beneath the retort. Such an ingenious downward distillation method was devised where the zinc vapor was formed after smelting zinc ore using specifically designed retorts with condensers and furnaces, so that the smelted zinc vapor could be drastically cooled down to get a melt that could solidify to zinc metal. This process has been described in Rasaratnakara, the alchemical text written by Nagarjuna in the medieval period. In Europe, the production of metallic zinc was virtually unknown and as late as 1735, professional chemists in Europe believed that zinc could not be reduced to metal except in the presence of copper. William champion first established commercial zinc smelting in Bristol in 1740. Interestingly enough it has been pointed out that Champion’s process of downward distillation bears a strong resemblance to the Zawar process, which would have been known to the British during the forays of the East India Company.

Mercury is also a volatile metal which is easily produced by heating Cinnabar followed by downward distillation of mercury vapor. The earliest literary references to the use of mercury distillation comes from Artha Shastra of Kautilya from the late 1st millennium BC onwards. In India; Vermillion or Cinnabar which is mercuric sulphide has had great ritual significance in making red bindi or dot on the forehead of married Hindu ladies. There is fairly extensive evidence for ancient mining of copper ores from Khetni regions of Rajasthan in north western India dating to about the 3rd to 2nd millennium BC along with smelting furnaces from Harappan civilization. Early copper artifacts of about the sixth millennium BC are also reported from the pre-Indus Valley sites of Baluchistan. Bronze is an alloy of copper and Tin. Some of the most beautiful and well executed bronze-castings in the world are icons from the Chola period in the Thanjavur area of south India in 10th century A.D. Investigations by some metallurgists have shown that the earliest and continuing use of artifacts of rapidly quenched high-tin bronzes are from the Indian subcontinent. The well-executed statue of a dancing girl from Mohenjo-Daro from the Indus Valley was an example of the earliest bronze castings in the world.

The above facts indicate that the ancient Indian metallurgists have also made significant contributions to the world to deserve their place along with other great civilizations. As clearly seen in case of high carbon steel, corrosion free iron castings and metallic zinc extraction, ancient India contributed significantly to their modern metallurgical advances.

Reference

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Ancient Indian Thought Contributing to The Field of Mathematics and Science

Niranjan Barik — Sat, 02 May 2026 04:19:38 +0000

“Many of the advances in the Sciences that we consider today to have been made in Europe were in fact made in India, centuries ago.”

Grant Duff

British Historian

Abstract

Ancient India was a land of free-flowing ideas and thoughts in all possible directions about all possible aspects of the inner as well as the outer world making the Indian civilization as one of the unique civilizations in the world with a vibrant and comprehensive tradition of spiritual as well as natural science. The sages and seers of this land who contributed to this rich culture as great thinkers were also scholars and scientists in their capacity. Almost all the prime aspects of human knowledge apart from spirituality like mathematics, astronomy, physics, chemistry, medicine and the practical procedures in which this knowledge was put into practice like metallurgy, architecture, shipbuilding and surgery etc. were covered in great detail by this science and technology in ancient India. Intrinsic fundamental concepts and principles of modern science have been provided with a foundation by these numerous postulates and scientific methods. While some of these ground breaking contributions have been acknowledged by the world body, some are still unknown to most.

Here in this article, we would discuss the contributions to the field of Mathematics and Physics.

Key Words: Ancient Indian scientific thought, Origins of mathematics in India, Concept of zero and decimal system, Vedic and classical scientific knowledge, Contributions to astronomy and physics, Integration of philosophy and science.

Mathematics

It is now generally accepted that India is the birthplace of several mathematical concepts including ‘zero’, numerical notations, decimal system, binary numbers; Fibonacci numbers, square root, cube root of numbers, algebra, algorithms, studies of infinite series, convergence, differentiation and iterative methods of solving nonlinear equations, ideas of calculus as well as geometry etc. Will Durant, an American historian (1885-1981) said that India is the mother of a lot of our mathematical concepts and philosophy. L. Basam, the Australian Indologist writes in his book “The miracle that India was…” that the world owes most to India in the field of mathematics to a level more advanced than that achieved by any other nation of antiquity. The success of Indian mathematics was primarily due to the fact that the Indian thought system was of a very high level in abstractions to think beyond the numerical quantity of objects and conceive clearly the abstract numbers. They could conceptualize the implication and significance of the most abstract entity in mathematics such as zero and infinity in its metaphysical forms as ‘Sunya’ and ‘Ananta’, which was very unique to Indian Culture. They invented the base ten number system with zero as a number, so as to be able to introduce numbers smaller than the smallest (called in Sanskrit as ‘Anoraniyan’) as well as numbers larger than the largest (called in Sanskrit as Mahato-mahiyan) which they needed to describe Nature with all its aspects starting with particles like atoms (Anus) to celestial bodies and the universe at large. The religious texts of the Vedic period provide evidence for the use of large numbers. Yajurveda Samhita (1200-900 BCE) mentions in its sacred mantra recitation at the end of food numbers invoking powers of ten from hundred (102) to an oblation rite (Anna-homa) as well as during asvamedha, trillion (1012) and beyond. Thus, the roots of mathematics in ancient India can be traced back to the Vedic era as old as about 4000 years. Between 1000 BC to 1000 AD; a number of mathematical treatises had been written in India

One of the greatest and most important inventions of human mind is the concept of zero which owes its origin to the Indian Philosophy in connection with the idea of ‘Sunya’ which literally means void or nothingness that stands for the un-manifested unit source of all creations, the embodiment of infinite potentialities and the ground of being as depicted in the Vedic cosmology in the hymns of Nasadiya Sukta in Rig Veda. ‘Zero’ has emerged as a derivative symbol to represent this concept. The concept of ‘Sunyata’ or nothingness was also integral to Buddhist thinking according to Nagarjuna’s Sunyavada. This was an idea which no western mathematician had ever thought of. Mathematician Aryabhatta of 5th Century AD, was the first person to use this present-day symbol (0) for zero as a number and a digit, whereas a small black circular patch () was used as a symbol of zero earlier. As early as 500 BC, Indians had also developed for each number from one to nine, a system of different symbols instead of alphabetic representations. By including the symbol of zero along with these nine symbols, Indians developed the ingenious method of writing a number, no matter how large or how small, only with these ten symbols. Aryabhatta in his Aryabhattiya has stated “Sthanat Sthanam Dasa Gunam Syat” which means from place to place each digit has a value ten times that of the preceeding one. In this system, called the ‘decimal system’, each digit while having its absolute value, receives its place value according to its position as well. Due to the simplicity of this decimal notation, it facilitated mathematical operations such as addition and subtraction etc. under the efforts of Aryabhatta. One of the earliest written evidence of the decimal place value system with the use of zero can be found in the Jaina cosmological text ‘Lokavibhaga’ written by the Jaina muni Saruanandin in 458AD (Saka era 380). In this text shunya (void) has been used to refer to zero. Laplace, the French mathematician and Philosopher therefore wrote – “The ingenious method of expressing every possible number using a set of ten symbols (each symbol having a place value and an absolute value) emerged in India. The idea seems so simple now-a-days that its significance is no longer appreciated. Its simplicity lies in a way it facilitated calculation and placed arithmetic foremost amongst useful inventions. The importance of this invention is more readily appreciated when one considers that it was beyond the two greatest men of antiquity Archimedes and Apollonius.”

This decimal system made arithmetic quite useful in practical inventions much faster and easier. Therefore, Albert Einstein also once remarked with his acknowledgement that – “We owe a lot to the ancient Indians, teaching us how to count, without which most modern scientific discoveries would have been impossible.” This statement can be well appreciated if we just recollect the string of alpha-numeric Roman numbers having no zero and place value system to understand their limitations. Indian mathematicians invented negative numbers as well. Acharya Pingala; the Vedic scholar of 3rd or 2nd century BC was the author of the earliest known Sanskrit treatise on prosody (the study of poetic meters and verses) by the name ‘Chandah Sastra’. This treatise presents the first known description of the binary numerical system in connection with the systematic enumeration of meters with fixed patterns of shorts (laghu) and long (guru) syllables. In modern discussions binary numbers are usually represented by using zero (0) and one (1). Pingala’s notation was similar to Morse Code and he used the Sanskrit word ‘Sunya’ explicitly to refer to zero. This concept of binary numbers represented by ‘1’ and ‘0’ has now formed the corner stones of basic language for computer programs. Pingala is also credited with his work on Pascal’s triangle (called meruprastara) as well as materials related to Fibonacci numbers called ‘Matrameru’. Later on, the methods for the formation of these numbers in the sequence as (1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13 ……) and their implications were developed by mathematicians Virahanka, Gopala and Hemachandra, much before the Italian Mathematician Leonardo Fibonacci introduced this fascinating sequence to the western world in 13th century. Following the only method of the oral tradition of the time for the propagation of knowledge, be it spiritual or scientific, the sages, seers and scholars composed slokas in poetic styles in Sanskrit according to the rules prescribed in Sanskrit prosody described in ‘Chanda Shastra’ of Pingal. This methodology was based on natural rhythms and arrangement of tones such that the ‘Slokas’ so composed would be pleasing to the ears and easy to be remembered for a long time. Thus, mathematical concepts and formulas including various ideas were written down as meaningful syllables in verses and slokas. Indians therefore invented the ‘Katapayadi’ system, where even mathematical numbers could be transcribed as words or verses.

Indian number systems, as it is believed, probably arrived in the Arab world in 773 CE with the diplomatic mission sent by Hindu rulers of Sind to the court of Caliph Al-Mansur and subsequently through the Arabic traders. This gave rise to the famous arithmetical text written by Al-Khwarizmi in around 820 CE, which contains a detailed exposition of Indian Mathematics including usefulness of zero. Al-Khwarizmi was a Persian Mathematician who developed a technique of calculation that became known as ‘algorism’. In fact, in 7th century CE, Brahmagupta developed the ‘Chakravala Method’ to solve indeterminate quadratic equations including Pell’s equation. This method identified as a cyclic algorithm now was later generalized for a wider range of equations by Jayadeva and was further refined by Bhaskara-II in his mathematical treatise ‘Bijaganita’. Algebraic theories as well as other mathematical concepts that were prevalent in ancient India were collected and further developed by the famous Indian Mathematician Aryabhatta in 5th century CE, who lived in Pataliputra, the present-day Patna in Bihar. His treatise on Mathematics is the ‘Aryabhattiya’. Aryabhatta (466-550 CE) in his Aryabhattiya described important fundamental principles of mathematics in 332 slokas covering areas like algebra, arithmetic, trigonometry etc. He obtained the value of ‘ π’ correct upto four decimal places. The Kerala Mathematician Nilakantha at subsequent times wrote sophisticated explanations of irrationality of’ π’ before the west had heard of the concept. The classical period between 400-1600 CE is often known as the golden age of Indian Mathematics. This period saw Mathematicians such as Aryabhatta-I, Varahamihira, Brahmagupta, Bhaskar-I, Bhaskara-II, Madhava of Sangamagrama and Nilakantha Somayaji and many others. The treatise by the Persian mathematician Al-Khwarizmi which contained all these developments with due credits to these Indian sources, was translated into Latin under the title ‘Algorithm’s de numero Indorum’ meaning the system of Indian numerals. A Mathematican in Arabic is called Hindsa, which means from India. The technique of calculation developed by Al-as ‘algorism’ later became the germ for the modern computer algorithms. The ‘Bakhshali manuscripts’ of seventy birch bark leaves dating back to the early 7th centuries of the Christian era discovered in 1881 in the village Bakhshali near Peshawar (of modern-day Pakistan) reveals Indian achievements with knowledge of fractions, simultaneous equations, quadratic equations, geometric progression and even Khwarizmi, known originally calculations of profit and loss etc.

Our forefathers can also be credited for their knowledge in geometry, trigonometry and in some way calculus as well. 14th century Kerali Mathematician Madhava along with others of his Kerala School, studied infinite series, differentials and iterative methods for solving non-linear equations and examined methods and ideals relating to differential calculus. Jyesthadeva (1500-1576 AD) of the Kerala School wrote ‘Yuktibhasa’ in malayalum language comprising all these ideas. Jyesthadeva presented proofs of most mathematical theorems and infinite series discovered earlier by Madhava and other Kerala School Mathematicians. In fact the landmark in Indian Mathematics was the development of the series expansions for trigonometric functions like sine, cosine and arc-tangent etc by the mathematicians of Kerala school in 15th century CE. These remarkable works developed two centuries before the invention of calculus in Europe by Isaac Newton and Leibnitz, provided what is now considered as the first examples of power series. However, they did not formulate a systematic theory of differentiation and integration.

It would be worthwhile to mention about the Sulba Sutras, composed between 800 BC to 500 BC in Vedic Sanskrit mainly for a single theological requirement with rules for construction of sacrificial fire-altars. There are three Sulba Sutras out of which the best known is Boudhayana Sulba sutra composed by Baudhayana during 8th century BCE, which contains examples of Pythagorean triples such as: (3, 4, 5), (5, 12, 13), (8, 15, 17), (7, 24, 25) and (12, 35, 37). This also contains a statement of the Pythagorean theorem for the sides of the square as “The rope which is stretched across the diagonal of a square produces an area double the size of the original square.” It also has a similar statement for the sides of a rectangle as “The rope stretched along the length of the diagonal of a rectangle makes an area which the horizontal and the vertical sides make together”. Baudhayana also gives an expression for the square root of two accurate up to five decimal places of the true value 1.41421356…. The other two Sulba Sutras are the Manava Sulba Sutra composed by Manava (750-650 BCE) and the other Apastamba Sulba Sutra, composed by Apastamba (600 BCE) with contents similar to Baudhayana Sulba Sutra. It has been found that the Babylonian cuneiform tablet ‘Plimpta – 322’ written around 1850 BCE, contains fifteen Pythagorean triples with quite large entries (13500, 12709, 18541). This indicates that there was also sophisticated understanding of the topic in Mesopotamia in 1850 BCE. Since these tablets predate the Sulba Sutras period by several centuries, taking into account this contextual appearance of some triples, it may be reasonable to expect that similar understanding would have been there in India. As the main objective of Sulba Sutras was to describe the construction of sacrificial fire-altars and the geometric principles involved in them, the subject of Pythagorean triples, even if it has been understood with its basic principles, many still not have featured in detail with the general proof in Sulba Sutras. This could have been due to the style of exposition demanded by the ancient oral tradition. Hence ‘Sutras’ adopted extreme brevity by expressing everything in a highly compressed form through multiple means. With the increasing complexity of mathematics and other branches of science like Astronomy, both writing and computation were required. Consequently, many mathematical works began to be written down in manuscripts to be copied from generation to generation.

India today has the largest body of hand-written reading materials comprising about several million manuscripts of prose commentaries and treatises. Then only derivations and proofs became favored. Thus Bhaskara-II (1114-1185 CE) in his Lilavati Bhasya, Bijaganita and Griha Ganitam that he wrote, had given a proof of the Pythagorean theorem. He had also conceived of differential calculus with concepts of derivatives, differential co-efficient. He had also stated Rolle’s theorem, a special case of mean value theorem which is one of most important theorems of calculus and analysis. Bhaskara-II had also developed the concept of infinity.

Physics

From the Vedic times around 3000 BC to 1000 BC ancient Indian sages and scholars ventured to analyze and understand the physical structure of the world. They considered that the material world of living and non-living bodies in their gross structure are constituted holistically by five basic elements called ‘Pancha Mahabhootas’ such as Khiti (earth), Apa (water), Teja (fire/energy), Marut (air), Vyoma (ether/space). They were associated with the five human sense perceptions such as earth with smell, air with feeling, fire with vision, water with taste and ether or space with sound. These ancient Indian Philosophers believed that except for ether/space, all other elements were physically palpable and hence composed of minuscule particles of matter. The last miniscule particle of matter which could not be further subdivided was termed as ‘paramanu’, the synonym for the Greek word ‘atom’. These Philosophers considered these atoms to be indestructible and hence eternal. However, in a later time the Buddhists believed atoms to be minute objects invisible to the naked eye which come into being and vanish in an instant like flares. The Vaisheshika school of Philosophers believed the atoms are mere points in space. As these concepts were based on logical analysis and abstract speculation but not on experimentation or personal observations, they are greatly abstract and enmeshed with philosophy as well. The school of Philosophy which contributed to the development of the ideas of ‘atom’ was the Vaisheshika School described earlier in chapter-4. Sage Kashyap known as Kanada Muni of 6th century BC, who composed the Vaisheshika Sutra, was the proponent of this idea. Another Indian Philosopher, a contemporary of Gautam Buddha, Pakudha Kaccayana had also propounded ideas about the atomic constitution of the material world.

Adherents of the Vaisheshika School of Philosophy founded by Kanada considered the atoms to be minute objects invisible to the naked eye and atoms of the same substance combined with each other to produce dyanuka (diatomic molecule) and tryanuka (triatomic molecules). They also believed that atoms could be combined in various ways to produce chemical changes in the presence of other factors such as heat. As an example of such a phenomenon, Kanada cited the blackening of earthen pots and ripening of fruit etc. According to Kanada, each substance is supposed to consist of four kinds of atoms out of which two kinds possess mass and the other two without mass.

Apart from the atomic postulations, Kanada also had ideas regarding the motion and rest of objects suggesting probably the same laws of motion attributed to Newton in the seventeenth century CE; more than two thousand years after him. This is because one finds in the Vaisheshika sutras, the verses regarding motion of objects as follows: –

“Vegah Nimitta Visheshat Karmano Jayate;

Vegah Nimittapekshyat Karmano Jayate,

Niyatadika kriya Prabandha Hetu,

Vegah Samayoga vishesha birodhi.”

This means action on objects generates motion. The external action being in a direction causes the motion in the same direction. An equal and opposite action can neutralize the motion.

In the fifth chapter of Vaisheshika Sutra, Kanada mentions various empirical observations on natural phenomena such as falling of objects to the ground, rising of fire and heat upwards, the growth of grass upwards, the nature of rainfall and thunderstorms, the flow of liquids, the movement towards a magnet and many other such cases and inquisitively searches why these things happen. Thus, it seems physics was central to Kanada’s assertion that all that is knowable is based on motion and therefore he attempted to integrate his observation with his ideas on atoms, molecules and their interactions in some rudimentary level.

In fact, Rig Veda asserted that gravitation is the cause that is responsible for holding the universe together. This was some twenty-four centuries before the anecdotal apple fell on Newton’s head. The notion of gravitation or gurutrakarshan is found in Siddhantas, the world’s earliest texts on astronomy and mathematics. ‘Siddhanta Siromani’ is one such text written by Bhaskara-II (1114-1185 CE) in which one can find the mention of gurutvakarshana in its Goladdhyaya-Bhubanakosha chapter as:

“Marudhalo Bhurachala Swabhabato yato

Bichitrabata-bastu Saktyah.

Aakrustisaktischa mahitaya yat khastam,

Gurutwabhimukham Swasakttya.

Akrudayate Tatpattobabhati

Samasamntat kwa patatwiyam khe.”

This means that each has the power of attraction by which it attracts material bodies towards it and so material bodies fall down on earth, when this power of attraction is uniform in all directions in the sky, then no object falls.

For this reason, the planetary systems and other stars and planets maintain their locations and motion in the sky. It has also been said that prior to Bhaskara-II, it was Varahamihira (505-587 CE), another Astronomer and mathematician of Siddhantic tradition who thought of the concept of gravity by claiming that there must be a force which might be keeping bodies stuck to earth and also keeping the heavenly bodies at specific places. Brahmagupta, another well-known mathematician of the 7th century had also commented on the concept of gravity as “Bodies fall towards the earth as it is like the earth to attract bodies, just as it is like water to flow.” Therefore Dick Teresi, the American writer of the book ‘Lost Discoveries’, a comprehensive study of the ancient non-western foundation of modern sciences, spells out clearly as:

“Two hundred years before Phythagoras,

Philosophers in northern India had

understood that gravitation held

the solar system together, and that

therefore the Sun, the most massive object,

Had to be at its centre.”

Aryabhatta, the one credited with the discovery of zero as the numeral, was also the first individual in 499 CE to explain that the daily rotation of the earth on its axis is the reason for the daily rising and setting of the Sun. Thus, he was the proponent of the helio-centric theory for the solar system. He conceived of the elliptical orbits of the planets thousand years before Kepler in the West assumed planetary orbits to be circular. Aryabhatta even came to the same conclusion. Before Kepler, Europeans estimated the value of the year as 365 days, six hours, 12 minutes and 30 seconds, only a few minutes off from the present correct value (365 days and six hours). This mathematical genius also made predictions of the solar and lunar eclipses as well as estimated the distance between the earth and the moon. The translation of Aryabhattiya into Latin in the thirteenth century taught Europeans a great deal revealing to them that Indians had known things that Europe would learn only a millennium after.

The Vedic civilization subscribed to the idea of a spherical earth at a time when everyone else, even the Greeks; assumed the earth to be flat. By the fifth century CE, Indians had calculated that the age of the earth was 4.3 billion years. But as late as the nineteenth century, English scientists believed the earth to be only a million years old. It is only in the late twentieth century that the western scientists have come to estimate it to be 4.6 billion years. This was in the aftermath of the first American Apollo mission to the moon that brought back the moon-rock to be analyzed to give this result which was highlighted in 1969 in American media comparing this outcome with ancient India’s almost accurate estimate.

There has been ample archeological evidence for ancient India’s use of ‘practical mathematics’ not only in measuring time on the basis of periodical cosmic events like earth’s rotation or orbital motion etc. but also in standardized measurements for weights as well as length. Excavations at Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro and other sites of Indus Valley Civilization have uncovered bricks whose dimensions were in proportion 4:2:1; considered favorable for the stability of brick structures. People of Indus Valley civilization used the standardized system of weights based on the ratios: 120, 110, 15, 12, 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 200 and 500 with the unit weight equaling approximately 28 grams (approximately equal to one British Ounce). They mass produced weights in regular geometric shapes such as hexahedra, barrels, cones, and cylinders using their basic knowledge of geometry. They also used standardized measurement of length to a high degree of accuracy. They designed a ruler, the Mahenjodaro ruler, whose unit of length was approximately 1.32 inches or 3.4 cm which was divided into ten equal parts. The bricks manufactured at that time often had dimensions that were integral multiples of this unit of length. Hollow cylindrical objects made of shell and found at Lothal (2200 BCE) and Dholavira are demonstrated to also have the ability to also measure the angles in a plane as well as to measure the position of stars for navigation.

It is quite amazing to find that ancient Indians starting from the Vedic era had introduced various names for the units and sub-units of length or distance as well as time. As for example the Mokshya dharma parva of Shanti Parva in Mahabharat describes the units of time including Nimisha as follows. Accordingly, 1 diva Ratri (Day-Night) which is 24 hours as we know today was divided into 30 Muhurtas, I Muhurta was 30.3 kala; 1 kala was 30 kashta; 1 kasta was 15 Nimisha. 1 Nimisha is the time duration for the wink of an eye; which from the above relations can be worked out to be a recursive decimal in seconds as:

1 Nimisha = 0.2112, second.

Similarly, a unit measure of length or distance was taken as a ‘Yojana’, which has been defined in Vishnu Purana (Chapter 6 of Book 1) an ancient Vedic text in the following manner. If one starts with a standard subunit of length measure to be 1 Angula (1 finger length approximately 4 inch) then 6 Angula is 1 Pada, 2 Pada is 1 Vitasti, 2 Vitasti is 1 Hasta (cubit = 1½ feet), 4 Hastas is 1 Danda or Purusha (a man’s height = 6 ft), 2000 Dandas is 1 Gavyutis (distance to which a cow’s mowing can be heard = 12000 ft) and 4 Gavyutis is 1 Yojana which is approximately 9.09 miles. Working downwards from 1 Angula, the further sub-units are also defined in the following manners. 1 Angula which is 1.89 cm is 10 Yavas (barley grain of middle size), 1 Yava is 10 Yavodaras (heart of barely), 1 Yavodara is 10 Yukas, 1 Yuka is 10 Likhsha, 1 Likhsha is 10 Balagras (Hair’s tip), 1 Balagra is 10 Mahirajas, 1 Mahiraja (Particle of dust) is 10 Trasarenu, 1 Trasarenu is 10 Parasukshma, 1 Parasukshma is 10 Paramanu. Thus, one can find out a rough estimate of the atomic dimension to be 1.89x10cm which is rather one order of magnitude smaller than what we know today in Physics to be of the order of Angstrom units (108cm) However there is another quite interesting estimate one can arrive at regarding the speed of light on the basis of a Rigvedic hymn (50th hymn in book 1 of Rig Veda), which is:

Taranir Vishvadarshato Jyotishkradasi Surya

Vishvama bhaasirochanam

Tatha cha Smaryate yojanam

Shahasre dve dve sate dve cha yojana

Ekena niminshardhena kramamana.”

Which means;

“Swift and all beautiful art thou

O’ Surya, maker of the light;

Illuminating all the radiant realm.

It is remembered here that this light

traverses 2202 Yojanas in half a nimisha.”

Sayanacharya, who was a minister in the court of Buka of the great Vijaya nagar empire of Karnataka in South India in early 14th century commenting on this verse in his Rigvedic commentary has pointed out its significance in estimating the speed of light. If one takes the time unit Nimisha = 0.2112 second and the distance unit Yojana = 9.09 miles as found according to the above-mentioned ancient texts; then 2202 yojana in 1½ Nimisha of travelling would mean a speed of light 2202 x 9.09 miles per 0.1056 seconds. Which means the speed of light so calculated would be:

c = 2202 x 9.09 0.1056 = miles/second

= 189547 miles / second

As per the presently known value of the speed of light, c=186000 miles/second. This is amazingly so close to the accurate value that was revealed to our ancestors several thousand years before modern science could realize it through centuries of various attempts using different experimental techniques besides the theoretical calculation based on Maxwell’s identification of light as an electromagnetic wave.

Reference

Basam A. L, The wonder that was India, Rupa & Co., New Delhi (1971).
Bose, D. M, Sen S. N, Subbarayappa B. V, A concise history of Science in India; Indian National Science Academy, New Delhi (1971).
Joseph G.G, Crest of the Peacock, Non-European roots of Mathematics, Princeton University Press (2000).
Puthaswamy T. K, Mathematical achievements of Pre-modern Indian Mathematics, Elsevier (2012).
Teresi Dick, Lost Discoveries: The Ancient Roots of Modern science from the Babylonians to the Maya, Simon & Schuster, New York (2002).

The post Ancient Indian Thought Contributing to The Field of Mathematics and Science appeared first on Institute of Philosophy of Nature.

Yoga Darshana The Unique Contribution of Ancient Indian Philosophy

Niranjan Barik — Sat, 25 Oct 2025 11:58:21 +0000

Abstract

Broadly speaking, philosophy is the pursuit of wisdom in understanding the fundamental questions concerning of knowledge, values, reality, existence with the purpose and meanings in all of them. It involves a systematic, critical and rational enquiry into the core ideas allowing individuals to examine their believes, to reflect on their experiences and to develop a deeper understanding of themselves and the world around them. In such a perennial pursuit, the ancient seekers in India contributed to the world the Vedic wisdom which we call ‘Darshan’ instead of philosophy. There are six systems of this Vedic philosophy called ‘Shada Darshana’ such as Nyaya, Baisheshika, Mimansha, Shankhya, Yoga and Vedanta. Out of these six main school of thoughts it is the Yoga Darshana which is the unique one to practice for perfection in bring the mind body complex into a deep realisation of the fundamental truth, the Unit Source as the divinity within one’s own self. There is a wide verity of methods of techniques at one’s disposal according to individual propensities and stages in life. These Yogic doctrines are such as Karma Yoga, Bhakti Yoga, Jnana Yoga, Raja Yoga/Kriya Yoga, Mantra Yoga, Kundalini Yoga etc. All these doctrines fall into the realm of Yoga Darshana a glimpse of which is provided in this article in view of the fact that this has captured the world attention by a UNESCO declaration to celebrate the International Yoga Day every year on June 21st.

Keywords: Ancient Indian philosophy, Vedic wisdom, School of thoughts, Yogic doctrines, Universal supreme consciousness, Cosmic intelligence, Ultimate liberation, Primacy of mind, All round wellness.

Introduction

The Sanskrit word ‘Yoga’ is derived from its generic verb ‘Yuj’ which means to link or to connect. The ancient Vedic text Bhagabat Geeta explains this as a process of connecting the individual consciousness to the Universal supreme consciousness. Vedic philosophy holds that there is definitely an all-pervading energy and consciousness with cosmic intelligence as an absolute potentiality which one may call ‘Brahman’ or God. This is the supreme metaphysical unit source as the possessor and controller of the universal energy, which is un-manifested, undifferentiated potentiality for everything in this phenomenal world including the individual selves. The individual consciousness is a manifestation of this supreme spirit or soul inside the individual body. Shamkshya darsana envisages that on its manifestation in dual form, it is known as Purusha the universal consciousness and ‘Prakriti’ the universal matter or energy. ‘Purusha’ becomes bonded being embedded in ‘Prakritti’ or the material body when it establishes contact with ‘Prakriti. In that sense; the individual soul or conscious being bonded in the material body, needs to be liberated for its realization in its full potentiality as the supreme soul. This can happen when the individual can establish a link with the supreme soul. The purpose of ‘Yoga’ is to effect this link or to put it in another way to connect the individual being to its ultimate the supreme Brahman’. This is considered as the ultimate goal of human life. Hence Yoga’ is a divine union not in the sense of merging and becoming one with the Supreme Being in some physical sense. This oneness is spiritual but not physical, which means that without losing the individuality one becomes united with the Supreme Being residing within one’s own self in a deep loving relationship with eternal bliss. This is called ‘Mokshya’ or ‘Nirvana’, the ultimate liberation from the bondage of the phenomenal world.

In order to understand this so-called bondage and liberation; we may discuss here a holistic perception of the human system and its possible. Subtle evolution according to shamkshya as well as Vedantic traditions. In science, when we talk about human evolution, it refers to morpho-logical changes that occur in a natural process with absolutely no human control. However, it is believed to be possible within human capabilities to accelerate the evolution of certain human attributes like consciousness. This is achievable by adopting some internal technology offered by our ancient saints and seers through spiritual practices including meditative process, what we call ‘Yoga’.

The Metaphysical Basis

As human beings, we are made up of body, mind and soul. The physical body consists of flesh and blood of matter. Besides this gross material body (Sthula Sharira), it is believed that there is a subtle or Astral body (Shukshma Sharira) which is simply energy and vibrations that we identify with heart and mind. Finally, there is a third one called the casual body (Karana Sharira) at the center or the base of our existence which we identify with the individual soul or the Atman. The Sthula Sharira or the physical body does not evolve any more in this life after the homeostasis stage had been perfected in the natural evolutionary path lasting over billions of years since the sprouting of life in the past, culminating ultimately in the emergence of human beings on earth. The Karana Sharira or the causal body or soul is also unchanging. So, what really can evolve or transform is the Sukshma Sharira or the subtle body or the mind. In fact, the subtle body consists of four functional parts such as,

These four works together to make up what we know as mind. Here Chitta or Consciousness is like the canvas of a painter on which the interplay of the other three subtle body components is orchestrated daily. In other words, manasa, buddhi and ahamkara have their existence and action within the field of consciousness. Hence Consciousness does not evolve on its own. It evolves with the help of the other three. If thought evolves into feelings, intellect evolves into wisdom and ego transforms into loving selflessness then only consciousness becomes able to expand from its static narrowness to become dynamic and universal in nature. Such a transformation can be possible, if one can train, control and regulate one’s mind. In fact, our mind in general is always restless and disturbed like an ocean in a storm, pulled by wishes and desires, worries and anxieties, fears and apprehensions. It becomes restless and at times turbulent due to various urges and habits in many different directions being scattered in so many different channels. On the other hand, a balanced and regulated mind is well focused to promote wellbeing. The imbalance or restlessness of the mind in general is due to the fact that the three Gunas (innate tendencies or attributes) such as Sattva, Rajas and Tamas, according to Shamkshya, are present ordinarily in different inhomogeneous proportions in all beings. The fundamental nature and psychological disposition of beings is a consequence of the relative proportion of those three gunas. When ‘Tamas’ overwhelms the other two, it leads to ignorance, delusion, lethargy, destructive behavior. When Rajas predominate, attachment, craving, passion-driven activity and restlessness manifests. But when sattva guna overwhelms the other two, it develops qualities of lucidity, wisdom, constructiveness, harmony and peace of mind. Thus, it is the overwhelming Sattva Guna, if it can be established by some means; which can elevate divinity with purity and perfection. It can make the self no longer confined to the painful limitation of ‘I’ and ‘mine’. This is what is called liberation when one becomes aware of the true self-the ‘Brahman’ or the ‘Purusha’ and realizes Brahman everywhere and in everything. But ordinarily the mind gets scattered under the continuous changing proportions of the Gunas. This Guna theory of Shamkshya in fact underpins the philosophy of mind in Yoga Schools. Accordingly, Yoga Schools of various traditions prescribe various systematic techniques and practices through which one can control and regulate the mind. It is believed that through the systematic techniques of spiritual practices and meditation as well as through the discriminating discernment of correct knowledge and self-awareness, one’s mind can be made purer, simpler and lighter in sattvik influence. Then one’s individual consciousness or ‘Chitta’ can naturally evolve so as to be able to dive deeper and deeper levels of one’s existence. This would open up more of one’s inner potential to become a seer, a divya drusta. This is the divine potential of human existence one can experience to realize the mahavakya ‘Aham Brahmasmi’. This is the ultimate goal of human life which can be attainable through proper Yogic method by persistence and practices.

Based on this metaphysical foundation Yoga can be defined in effect as the inhibition (nirodha) of the fluctuation or modification (vritti) of the mind (chitta) which is often stated as “Yoga as Chitta-Vritti-Nirodha“. Vivekananda says Yoga is restraining the mind stuff (chitta) from taking various forms (vritti). Thus, Yogic practices culminate in attaining a state of consciousness free from all modes of active discursive thought and eventually leading to attain a state where consciousness is unaware of any object external to itself and is only aware of its own nature as pure consciousness which is the self -Ultimate, the ‘Brahman’.

Various Yoga Doctrines

Throughout the centuries following the ancient Vedic era; there have been several Yoga doctrines and schools. Bhagabat Geeta literally meaning song of the divine Absolute, has been written around 3000 BC, as a conversation between Arjuna representing a common individual and Sri-Krishna, the God-incarnate representing the supreme being, which took place in the battle field of Mahabharat. Through Arjuna’s question and Sri Krishna’s Answer; the complete science of Yoga had been revealed in a systematic step-by-step way. It tells one which path of Yoga one should follow and how, depending on one’s own innate temperament and individual disposition. This may be considered as the earliest scripture on Yoga that emphasizes mostly three different paths (marga) called Karma Yoga, Bhakti Yoga and Jnana Yoga. Besides this the other important texts available for the medieval Yoga schools were ‘Yoga-Vasistha’ written by Maharshi Valmiki and Yoga Yajnyabalka written by sage Yajnyabalka. However, it was sage Patanjali, who compiled the ‘Yoga-Sutra’ sometimes between 500 BC to 400 BC; synthesizing and organizing all knowledge about Yoga from much older traditions. Yoga – Sutra is held as one of the foundational texts of classical Yoga philosophy and is a condensation of two different traditions namely Kriya Yoga and Astanga Yoga. This is also called ‘Raja Yoga’. Here we would describe mainly these four important Yogas such as (i) Karma Yoga (ii) Bhakti Yoga (iii) Jnana Yoga and (iv) Raja Yoga. There are also several other schools like Mantra Yoga, Trantra Yoga or Kundalini Yoga which would find some mention hereafter.

(i) Karma Yoga:

Karma Yoga is the path of action, performing one’s duty with mindfulness as selfless service to others without any expectation for the fruits of action. It is said in Bhagabat Geeta that

“Karmanyebadhikaraste

Ma phalesu kada-chana

Ma karma-phala-hetur-bhur

Ma te-sango ‘styakarmani”

(Bhagabat Gita 2.47)

which means – “you have a right to perform your duty prescribed, but you are not entitled to the fruits of action. Never consider yourself the cause of the results of your activities and never be attached to not doing your duty.”

“Karma” is both action and the result of this action in the form of its reaction. So, what we experience today is the result of our ‘karma’ – both good or bad, created by our previous actions. This chain of cause and effect that we ourselves have created can be snapped by disengaging our ego from the work process. We must realize that so much of our lives run simply in expectations of future results that we do it unconsciously and automatically. But our expectations and desires are unending and at times unappeasable leading us from disappointment to disappointment. Since our motivation is to enlarge our ego, instead of breaking the bonding of karma, we go on forging fresh chains. Breaking this bond is possible through our work dedicated to the higher power, the supreme soul or to a personal God; renouncing the result of action as a spiritual offering rather than hoarding the results for our own self. Since action is inevitable as it is an integral part of being alive, we need to re-orient it into a path of divine realization and by doing so we can stop this chain reaction of cause and effect. Therefore, Sri Krishna in Bhagabat Geeta says to Arjuna-

“Whatever your action, food or worship,

Whatever the gift you give to another,

Whatever you vow to the work of spirit,

Lay these also as offerings before me.”

Karma Yoga can easily be practiced by any one of any temperament. Just as devotees offer flowers and incense in their loving worship, so can actions and thoughts be offered as divine worship. In fact, karma compels everybody to be active, to work industriously at least for one’s own good or for the good of society. According to Vivekananda, one’s pre-occupation in doing work for the common goods, sacrificing one’s personal interest, is not less important than believing in God or studying philosophy. Vivekananda said – “Although a man has not studied a single system of philosophy, although he does not believe in any God; and never has believed, although he has not prayed even once in his whole life, if the simple power of good actions has brought him to that state where he is ready to give up his life and all else for others, he has arrived the same point to which the religious man will come through his prayers and the philosopher through his knowledge.”

‘Karma’ or action here not only means external physical work, it also includes our thoughts, speech, our words and deeds. Karma Yoga says- like fire in a flint, knowledge also exists in the mind, the impressions received from objects and phenomena of the external world are the strikes producing fire. All that we feel and all that we live for – the smiles, the tears, the joy and the grief, pleasure and suffering everything is brought from within us by so many such blows. The result is what we are; all these blows taken together are also called ‘Karma’. Every mental and physical blow that is given to the soul, by which, as it were, fire is struck from it, and by which its own power and knowledge are discovered, is karma – the world used in the widest sense. Thus, we are all doing karma all the time. Everything we do, physical or mental is karma which leaves its mark on us.

Religious symbols and rituals are also recognized to be part or aspects of Karma-Yoga. This aspect arises from the premise that any religion consists of three principal parts; philosophy, mythology and ritual. Philosophy is regarded as the essence of religion. Mythology is intended to explain and illustrate religion by means of legendary lives of great men, stories and fables of wonderful things and so on. Ritual is supposed to give to that philosophy a still more concrete form, so that everyone may grasp it. Thus, ritual is also ‘Karma’ which is in fact concretized philosophy.

These are the principal aspects of Karma Yoga. Having realized that all that is manifested (the whole material world) is only part of one ‘Brahman’, we have to understand why everything in this world is imperfect. But knowing that everything in this world including ourselves is a derivative of the one, of the integral, of the perfect, we have to understand we are striving towards perfection. The path to perfection lies through our struggles, we call our Karma, which creates fetters for us. Hence the ultimate goal of individual self (soul) is the release, i.e., to become free from the fetters of work. Karma Yoga prescribed to work incessantly, but be not attached to it so as to attain the supreme.

(ii) Bhakti Yoga:

Bhakti Yoga is the path of devotion with all actions as services in the name of the Divine. This includes prayer with offerings as well as chanting the name of the divine with overwhelming spirit of love and submission. Bhagabat Geeta said;

“Patram Puspam Phalam toyam

Yo me bhaktya prayachati,

Tat aham bhaktyupahritam

Ashnami prayatatmanah.”

(Geeta 9.26)

which means – “Whoever offers me with devotion a leaf, a flower, a fruit or a little water; that so offered devotedly by the pure minded, I accept.”

For those individuals more emotional than intellectual, this path of Bhakti Yoga can be the most natural spiritual path to feel oneness with the Divine. Because in loving spirit, one forgets one’s own self devoting one’s whole attention to the object of adoration. The ego loosens its grip when one thinks the welfare of one’s loved one more than of his own self. Love gives concentration against the will. Thus, in an easy and totally effortless manner, love can create the pre-condition necessary for a spiritual life. One can have a loving devotional attitude towards one’s personal God, thinking Him as Father or Mother, Friend or Child or even the beloved; whichever one feels natural to the self to bring him / her closest to God. In fact, from the standpoint of Bhakti Yoga, divinity by any name or form; be it Ishwara or any other personal God, it all refers to the highest possible reading by human mind of ‘Brahman’ the Absolute, which is too much of an abstraction to be loved and worshiped. As written in the Upanishads, Brahman is the clay or substance out of which an infinite variety of articles are fashioned. As clay, they are all one, but form or manifestation differentiates them. They all existed potentially in the clay before every one of them was made. Hence Ishwara or any personal God for worship is precisely a concretization of the idea of Brahman which stands as the eternal inexpressible (sphota), the manifester as logos or world. In other words, sphota is the forefather of all ideas, their common basis and even the essence. Swami Vivekanada in his “The complete works, vol. III, P-36” says like this, “If the peculiarities which distinguish one word from another be removed, then what remains will be the sphota.” Man found the appropriate sound (language) form to express particulars ideas. But what form can express this inexpressible ‘Sphota’? If we express it by giving a definition, a sound form, it would be restricted and will cease to be itself. Bhakti Yoga prescribes a most appropriate sound form for this ‘sphota’ – the sound ‘OM’. Here the word (symbol/sound) ॐ/OM is intended as a generalized symbol of all possible sounds. ‘Sphota’ being the potentiality of all those possibilities is often referred to as ‘Nada Brahman’ or sound – Brahman. Hence ‘OM’ stands as the ‘Bija-Mantra’ in chanting devotional hymns in prayers addressing the divinity in all spiritual activities.

Bhakti-Yoga according to Vivekananda is divided into two stages, the preparatory one (gaunli) and the supreme one (para). The preparatory or the lower form of Bhakti is for those who do not rise above sensuous pleasures of earthly life. They must wait and go through many more births and reincarnations to learn to feel even the faintest necessity for anything higher. But for whom, the eternal interests of the soul are much higher than the fleeting interests of this mundane life, the gratification of the senses is like the thoughtless child-play for them. God and love of God form the highest and the only purpose in human existence. Lower stage of Bhakti at times may lead to fanaticism so that such Bhaktas become incapable of distinguishing between truth and error. Therefore, great significance has been ascribed to mythology and rituals as the auxiliary method in the transition from gaunli-bhakti to para-bhakti. In those systems of religion in which there exist in its spiritual texts rich mythology and ritualism, spiritual masters have been produced to show the light of wisdom. Vivekananda writes that a bhakta must be aware that there are different religions in the world with different methods of worship. Entering upon earthly life, man has to choose an ideal and be loyal to it to the end of his days with a motive to develop a spiritual personality. This requires strict observance of the rules of moral hygiene and purity of mind. Ramanuja said that there are five such rules of moral hygiene such as:

(i) Satya (truthfulness)

(ii) Arjava (sincerity)

(iii) Daya (kindness)

(iv) Ahimas (non-injury to others by thought or word or deed).

(v) Abhidhya (not coveting other’s goods, not thinking vain thoughts, and not brooding over injuries received from others).

Strict observance of these five principles would mean in Vivekananda’s view, renunciation or transition to the higher form of worship called para-bhakti. In fact, preaching of renunciation is found in all types of Yoga in one form or the other, since it is the cornerstone of any spiritual perfection. Karma Yogi’s renunciation is in the form of giving up all the fruits of his actions, all attachment to the results of his labor and all expectations for any reward here or hereafter. However, Bhakti Yogi’s renunciation is quite natural in the sense that it does not require suppression of anything. It is in fact similar to the presence of intensely strong light for which less intense ones appear dimmer and dimmer till they vanish completely. So, in ascending to the summits of para-bhakti, cravings for sensual pleasures including even the obsession of the intellect grows weaker and finally vanishes altogether.

At this summit stage of para-bhakti names and forms vanish, rituals become meaningless, scriptures are superseded, images, temples, places of worship, religion etc. like little limitations and bondages fall off by their own nature. Nothing remains to bind man or fetter his freedom. The soul or the self becomes free of all bondages and becomes released in the sense of attaining Mokshya or Nirvana.

(iii) Jnana Yoga:

Jnana yoga is the mode of release through knowledge (Jnana). As soon as ignorance (avidya) is destroyed, the human soul (Jibatma) becomes free. Jnana Yoga is also known as Shamkshya Yoga. According to Advaita Vedanta the entire phenomenal world including man himself is a derivative of ‘Brahman’, the Absolute. Man consists of the same stuff as the Universe, being a Universe himself in miniature. Hence Jnana Yoga proclaims that- “Know thyself and thou shalt know the basis of all that is.”

Those who are endowed with intensive discriminating intellect motivated by reason could be better suited for the path of Jnana Yoga in striving for perfection through the power of reason. This is the path of knowledge, wisdom, introspection and contemplation. Knowledge here is not in the intellectual sense, but the spiritual knowledge of the Brahman and Atman and the realization of their unity. In Bhakti Yoga, the spiritual aspirant follows the promptings of one’s heart, whereas in Jnana Yoga, one uses the power of one’s mind to discriminate between the real and the unreal, the eternal and the temporal. There is no need to look outside for the divinity. We ourselves are already divine. This is our real nature as well as the nature of the whole world around us. Realization of this truth involves deep exploration of one’s own self by setting aside false identities. We can reasonably set aside those as unreal, which are transitory, imperfect being subjected to change. So also, we can accept those as real in the absolute sense which are eternal, perfect and unchanging. In that sense the universe that we apprehend is unreal. The universe and our perception of it may have only a conditional reality, but not an ultimate one. This is because of our perception through our senses; our mind and intellect, everything has been conditioned inherently by the very nature of our body-mind complex. Brahman being the all-pervading infinitude by nature, normal human mind and intellect cannot apprehend the fullness of Brahman. Upanishads declare that Brahman is beyond the reach of speech and mind. But yet what we perceive can be nothing other than Brahman. This contradiction can be removed by self-assertion, when we continually affirm what is real about ourselves. Actually, we are not limited to a small physical body with an

individual mind. Our existence is spiritual as we were never born, will never die. We are pure, perfect, eternal and free. That is the greatest truth of our being. The philosophy behind this is ‘as you think, so you become’. We have programmed through our several lifetimes to think of ourselves as limited, weak and helpless. These wrong thoughts had gone into our mind again and again to create the wrong impression, we call that ignorance. We must reverse the process by right thought about the true nature of our ‘self’ as the divine pure consciousness. Jnana yoga uses our considerable internal powers to realize that we have always been and we are even now, perfect and immortal, free and infinite as well. In Advaita Vedanta as well as in other Indian Philosophical schools, it is believed that knowledge is not to be acquired from without. Upanishads declare that Brahman Atman holds the key to all knowledge. Therefore, it is the innate nature of the human soul – the Jibatma or the Atman the repository of infinite wisdom. This infinite wisdom potentially remains always the same and is never lost, but man is not ordinarily conscious of this. Swami Vivekananda writes in his ‘The Complete Works’, vol.IV, p-365 that – “when the individual mind, on the one hand favorable time, place and causation on the other, can act and react upon one another, then highly developed consciousness of knowledge is sure to follow”. “Consciousness of knowledge’, as explained further by Vivekananda can be stated as follows. From the standpoint of Jnana Yogis, man does not receive knowledge from objects and phenomena of the external world. Man, always has knowledge as stated earlier through the innate nature of his ‘soul’, but it is covered by a veil or hidden like fire in flint. The objects and phenomena of the external world are absolutely necessary in a way to reveal this knowledge. They bring out knowledge from the soul by raising the veil from over knowledge in the same way as the steel strikes fire from a flint. Thus, it appears that knowledge is realized within, not obtained from without. Vivekananda recognizes three states of consciousness as instinct/unconsciousness, reason/consciousness and the super conscious state; all of them belong to the same consciousness. Each state in fact develops into another. Consciousness itself when develops to super-conscious state that is superior to intellect. One can possess knowledge that is superior to intellectual knowledge. In this supreme state the spiritual knowledge of the divinity, purity and perfection of one’s own self or soul descends in one’s realization. Then one can recognize the same in other beings. No longer feeling confined to the painful limitations of ‘I’ and ‘Mine’, one becomes able to see ‘Brahman’ everywhere and in everything and thus attains liberation or Mokshya.

(iv) Raja Yoga:

This is the royal path of meditation to maintain control over the vast and varied territory of our mind. It can be practiced by people of all temperaments. It helps in achieving balance and harmony on all levels of human existence-physical, mental and spiritual so as to have the full realization of the inner self. The basic premise of Raja Yoga is that our perception of the divine nature of our inner self is obscured by the fluctuating patterns and disturbances of our mind. If the mind can be made still and pure, the self will automatically and instantaneously shine fourth. Bhagabat Geeta proclaims

“When through the practice of Yoga

The mind ceases its restlessness,

Movements, And becomes still,

The aspirant realizes Atman.”

Raja Yoga is also called Astanga Yoga or eight-fold path, since it enjoins eight steps to be practised systematically and methodically. Then in due course one can realize the orderly process of self-transformation beginning on the level of the physical body and eventually involving the most subtle levels of our existence. Raja Yoga is a scientific discipline that does not impose unquestioning faith. It rather encourages healthy self-examination and scientific verification by experimenting with its methods. Thus, Raja yoga can be considered as the most suitable path for the modern world, where scientific skepticism is so prevalent.

The eight steps of Astanga Yoga are:

(i) Yama (abstinences or ethical practices)

(ii) Niyama (Observances)

(iii) Asana (Physical Postures)

(iv) Pranayama (breath control)

(v) Pratyahara (Withdrawal of senses)

(vi) Dharana (Concentration)

(vii) Dhyana (Meditation)

(viii) Samadhi (Absorption)

The first five steps which are the external preparatory stages constitute what is called ‘Hatha Yoga’. The last three stages are internal ones involving mind and consciousness.

The preliminary preparatory stages involving the mind, such as ‘Yama’ and ‘Niyama’ constitute ethical vows as moral imperatives or commitments for practicing virtuous habits, behaviours and observances. The five ‘Yama’ of restraints are;

(i) Ahimsa (non-violence in speech and action.

(ii) Satya (truthfulness)

(iii) Asteya (Non-stealing, honesty)

(iv) Brahmacharya (Chastity, sexual restraints)

(v) Aparigraha (greedless, non-possessiveness)

These five great ethical vows are called ‘Mahabratam’ which lead to the abandonments of enmity, falsehood, lust and greed and hence a perfection of inner and outer amity with everyone and everything. Practicing of these ‘Mahabratas” need not be limited to any class, place, time or circumstances.

Similarly, there are five ‘Niyamas’ or observations for virtuous habits and behaviors. They are:

Saucha (Purity and cleanliness of body mind and speech).
Santosha (Contentment, acceptance of others and circumstances, optimism).
Tapas (Persistence, perseverance, austerity).
Svadhyaya (Self-reflection, introspection and Self-study of scriptures).
Isvara Pranidhana (contemplation of the Brahman, the ultimate Supreme Being reality).

The last three ‘Niyamas’ such as Tapas, Svadhya and Ishwara Pranidhana constitute what is called ‘Kriya-Yoga’. Thus, the ten commitments, through the observances of five ‘Yamas’ and five ‘Niyamas’ in the yogic tradition, lead to the cultivation of the behavior and attitude necessary in a virtuous individual personality.

The next step in Astanga Yoga involves physical postures in Asanas. There are several types of asanas by different names. The first kind of asanas are practiced to perfect the body making it free from disease by stimulating specific muscles and nerve systems promoting ample physical wellness. The second kind are stable comfortable meditative postures to attain serene breath and calm mind. In general asanas are body postures that one can hold for a period of time, staying relaxed, steady, comfortable and motionless. Some of the well-known asanas can be named here as for example are:

(i) Padmasana

(ii) Bajrasana

(iii) Virasana

(iv) Bhadrasana

(v) Svastikasana

(vi) Dandasana

(vii) Dhanurashana

(viii) Nalashana

(ix) Matchhyasana

(x) Mayurashana

(xi) Shirshasana

(xii) Shabasana

The correct postures for the respective asana can be learnt through active instructive demonstrations by yoga gurus and should be practiced regularly as per instructions.

The fourth step of Asatanga yoga is pranayama or breath control. Prana here is symbolized as breath and ‘ayama’ meaning restraining, extending or stretching. In fact, ‘prana’ by some interpretations means the vital energy that sustains the body and the mind and its grossest manifestation is in the form of breath.

After a desired comfortable posture is achieved pranayama is practiced by consciously regulating breath (inhalation and exhalation). This is done in several ways inhaling and then suspending inhalation for a period; slowing the inhalation and exhalation consciously changing time with one nostril at a time or both, length of the breath (deep, short breathing) etc. These breathing exercises are well known by different processes in different names such as (i) Kapalabhati (ii) Anuloma Biloma (iii) Bhramari or sometimes by the general name Sudarshana Kriya etc. This assertion of ‘Prana’ being represented by breath and ‘Pranayam’ as the control of breathing as per many texts on yoga, is considered by several other schools to be an imprecise expression of the category in question. Vivekananda interprets ‘Prana’ the vital force or everything that we call force as a manifestation of energy. It is ‘Prana’ that manifests as actions of the body as nerve currents, as thought-force as well. The knowledge and control of the ‘Prana’ according to Vivekananda is really what is called Pranayama. Pranayama really means controlling the motion of the lungs which is associated with our breath. The Prana in fact moves the lungs and the movement of the lungs draws in the air as breath. So, Pranayama in controlling that muscular power which moves the lungs, that muscular power which goes out through the nerves to the muscles and from them to the lungs, making them move in a certain manner, is the ‘Prana’ according to Videkananda. Taking this conception of ‘Prana’ and of the Pranayam as their basis, Raja Yogis maintains that one can be capable of controlling almost any part of his body, the muscles, the nerves, groups of cells and even individual cells. If that be the case, then all the sickness and misery felt by the body can be eliminated by perfectly controlling the body in this manner. In any case; Pranayama no doubt leads to calmness and concentration, which is essential for the practice of subsequent steps of Astanga Yoga.

Now coming to the fifth step, it is ‘Pratyahara’ or withdrawal and control of senses. Ordinarily the mind constantly gathers sensations from the external world and reacts to them. One needs to develop the ability to voluntarily remove the distractions of the outer world. So ‘Pratyahara’ means not to take any input or any information from the sense organs. It is a process of retracting the sensory experience from external objects. It is a process of self-extraction and abstraction, not by consciously closing one’s eyes to the sensory world but rather consciously closing one’s mind to all that. Pratyahara empowers one to stop being controlled by the external world so as to focus one’s attention in seeking knowledge and experience one’s inner world with its innate freedom. It marks the transition of yoga experience from outside to inside, from outer space of the body to the inner space of spirit. These first five stages of Astanga yoga called the ‘Hatha Yoga’ prepare one for the last three internal practices of ‘Dharana’, ‘Dhyana’ and finally ‘Samadhi’; which focus more directly on the control of the mind and consciousness.

The sixth step ‘Dharana’ means concentration in which the scattered mind is coordinated and focused on any particular thing like an object one wants to observe, a concept or an idea on which one wants to introspect. The mind can also be fixed on one’s breath or navel or the tip of one’s nose or a mantra like the simple ‘OM’. This requires a conscious effort of the will and continued voluntary attention to fix the mind with one pointed focus without drifting or jumping from one topic to another. Then the mind becomes more powerful, calm and serene to go to the next step ‘Dhyana’ or Meditation.

Dhyana means contemplation, reflection or profound abstract meditation. It is an uninterrupted train of thought or current of cognition or a flow of awareness on the topic of ‘Dharana’. Thus, Dhyana is integrally related to Dharana. Dharana is the state of the mind while Dhyana is the process of the mind by which the one-pointed mind expands beyond its conscious and subconscious levels and finally assumes the flow of the super-consciousness Adi Shankara states that ‘Dhyana’ is the Yoga state when there is only the stream of continuous thought about the object, uninterrupted by other thoughts of a different kind for the same object. On the other hand, Dharana is focused on one object with awareness of its many aspects and ideas about the same object. For example, if in Dhyana state one contemplates on the Sun’s orbit alone without being interrupted by its color, brilliance or any other ideas; in ‘Dharana’ on the morning Sun, one may be aware of its color, brilliance and other related ideas.

Deep and intense mediation prolonged in the ‘Dhyana’ state leads to climax, the final stage called ‘Samadhi’, when one experiences oneness with the subject of contemplation. There is then no distinction between the meditator, the act of meditation and the subject of meditation. It is that spiritual state when one’s mind is so absorbed in whatever it is contemplating on, the mind loses the sense of its own identity. The thinker, the thought process and thought fuse together with the subject of thought. There is only oneness of the observer and the object along with the process of observation in one’s mindscape. One experiences oneness with the higher self, transcending all limitations and imperfection. It is the fourth state of consciousness transcending the three normal states of waking, dreaming and dreamless sleep. This super conscious level is our human essence which is universal. In this state where ecstatic awareness develops, deep intuitive knowledge dawns on the mind. One starts the process of becoming aware of one’s true self the ‘Purusha’ or the Super-consciousness as claimed by Shankshya darshana. It further claims that this awareness is eternal and hence once this awareness is achieved, a person cannot ever cease being aware. This leads to one’s ability to discern the difference between Sabda (word) artha (meaning) and pratyaya (understanding), so as to empower one to compassionately comprehend the absolute truth. One masters by that unusual power, intuition, self-knowledge freedom and kaibalya. This is the real goal of Yoga-spiritual emancipation, the mokshya. One must emphasize again that all limbs of Astanga Yoga are necessary foundations to reach this state of self-awareness, freedom and liberation.

(v) Mantra Yoga:

Mantra Yoga can be Said to have its origin in Vedic Science, where all the verses are called mantras. Mantra is defined in Sanskrit as ‘Mananat Trayate’ iti Mantra’, which implies that by chanting or singing of these particular combinations of words in Sanskrit properly, one can achieve the ultimate salvation or union with the supreme consciousness. Hence Mantra Yoga is an easiest way to achieve the difficult states of ‘Dhyana, Dharana and ‘Pratyahara’ in Astanga Yoga, which is required to internalize the sense-oriented mind away from the external world focusing it on the inner consciousness. By chanting mantras in a repetitive manner; one’s awareness can be made to revolve around the sound and vibrations generated by that particular combination of words, syllables or alphabets in the mantra. The repetitive action leads to the awakening of a powerful inner force by which the consciousness or awareness can be made concentrated for the ultimate state of the ‘Samadhi’ for salvation. Hence ‘mantra’ is a tool for the mind designed to help the practitioners access a higher power and its true nature. The sound vibration it produces can carry with it the focused mind with all its thoughts, feelings and intentions. Over the time the vibration sinks deeper and deeper into the consciousness, helping one eventually to feel its presence as ‘Shakti’, a powerful though subtle force working inside each of us that carries into the deeper states of awareness. So, a mantra can generate the creative force and bestow eternal bliss. Each mantra is constructed from a combination of sounds derived from the fifty letters of Sanskrit (Devanagari) alphabets. Sanskrit language is known as the language of consciousness. Sages and seers of ancient India were well aware of the inherent power contained in sound and they utilized proper combination of sounds to set up specific vibrations so that a mantra would function as an encased mystical energy in its specific sound structure. The combined effect of such a sound structure on the physical plane can be observed specifically on the brain via EEG; to find that the brain wave emission patterns get affected by chanting of mantras. The alpha activity of the brain can be observed during mantra chanting. Mantras affect the subconscious mind by influencing the thinking pattern. Negative impressions such as fear, anger, jealousy etc. are removed from the subconscious level while positive impressions are programmed on it. Practice of mantra chanting increases concentration, memory, and logical thinking. Mantra chanting has also soothing effects on the nervous system which helps in relaxing the muscles and reducing stress. Neuro scientists equipped with advanced brain imaging tools are beginning to study and confirm some of the health benefits of this ancient practice such as its ability to free the mind from the background chatter and to calm the nervous system. Researchers have measured the activity of the default mode network region of the brain. This is the region that is active during self-reflection and mind-wandering. An overactive default mode network would mean disturbed mind. However, it has been observed that during mantra meditation, this default mode network activity gets suppressed and the suppression becomes more and more with repetitive mantra chanting and practice.

In Sanskrit texts there are millions of mantras. It is believed that most of these mantras were originally revealed to the sages who achieved self-realization. One of the most universally recited mantras is AUM/OM, considered to be the sound of creation of the universe. This is called the ‘Bija-mantra’, the ‘Nada-Brahman’ or ‘Pranaba’. It is the supreme symbol of Brahman or the Absolute. It consists of A, U, M and ardha matras like ‘nada’, ‘bindu’, kala and shakti. They act directly on Nadis or nerve channels of the subtle body. It is believed to contain every vibration that has ever existed or will exist in future. It has been used as the energetic root of all other mantras like ‘Om Namah Shivaya’, ‘Om Namah Bhagabate Basudevaya’ etc. It has deep roots in every major spiritual tradition. The important mantras triggering the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems are the Gayatri Mantra and the Maha-Mruttunjaya Mantra respectively. Quoting explicitly, they are:

Om bhūr bhuvaḥ svaḥ,
tat savitur vareṇyaṁ,
bhargo devasya dhīmahi,
dhiyo yo naḥ pracodayāt.’

And

‘Om Trayambakam Jajamahe

Sugandheem Pustibardhanam,

Urbarukamiba bandhanat

Mruttyormukshiya mamrutat.’

There are also puranic or deity mantras which are relatively simple and can be practiced by anybody which help purify emotions of the human mind. These are such as:

‘Om Namah Narayanaya,

‘Om Namah Shivaya’

‘Hare Krrishna Hare Ram’ etc.

In these mantras, a specific form or image with attributes is visualized along with their repetitive chanting or Japa. Hence such mantras aid the conceptualization process in spiritual aspirants just as do visual symbols like images or bigrahas of deities. Japa is one of the most direct ways of self-realization. Constant practice of continuous chanting called Japa produces in the mind the form of the deity connected with the mantra, since this form becomes the center of one’s consciousness to be directly realized. The mantra of the presiding deity is therefore the same as the deity. Japa meditation is therefore a method of channeling one’s consciousness from the lowest to the highest level of pure thought. Regardless of any chosen one a mantra can be enlivened through a regular practice over a period of time. It is like rubbing a flint against a stone to strike fire by friction. The focus of bringing oneself back to the sound structure of the mantra again and again and especially the attention one pays to the resonating mantra in one’s awareness, eventually opens the energy in the mantra. Then it stops being just mere words to become a living energy that one feels in lifting the inner state to the higher level. Repeated verbally or mentally, a mantra lifts one into the telepathic state and beyond to the transcendental when name, form and one’s own self as a witness are indistinguishable. They unite and a state of bliss prevails. This is the true experience of meditation. Japa meditation had been propagated by Shaivaits and Vaishnavits. Sri Chaitanya of the Bhakti movement exemplifies such practice.

Although mantra yoga is generally considered as the innovation of Hinduism, it has also been adopted and developed by Buddhism, Jainism and other religions.

(vi) Kundalini Yoga:

Kundalini Yoga is an ancient practice followed by many systems of yoga through pranayam, asana, meditation and chanting of mantras. It is based on an important concept of Shaiva tantra according to which kundalini is a form of divine feminine energy believed to be passively located at the base of the spine in the human body. The concept of Kundalini has been mentioned in Upanishads during 9th to 7th century BC. In Shaiva tantra tradition, Kundalini is considered as the innate intelligence of the embodied consciousness or the ‘Prana Shakti which is spread over both the macrocosm (entire universe) as well as the microcosm, the human body. This subtle energy in the body, when cultivated through tantric practice is believed to lead to spiritual liberation. Kundalini is associated with the formless aspects of Goddess Parvati or Adishakti, the supreme divinity in Shaktism and also with Goddesses Bhairavi and Kubjika by other names. This feminine spiritual force signifies its strong connection to bliss and pleasures, both mundane physical pleasure and bliss of spiritual liberation or mokhshya, which is identified with the enjoyment of Shiva’s creative activity and ultimate union with the Goddess. Tantra Sadbhava-Tantra of 8th Century mentions visualization of shakti in the central channel of the spine and the upward movement of prana associated with Kundalini. This belief along with the practice of Hatha Yoga was adopted in the 9th century by shaivism and since then been taken up by other forms of Hinduism as well as modern spirituality.

According to an esoteric description of the subtle body of human organism; it is believed to consist of energy channels called nadis, psychic centers called chakras, subtle energy called ‘prana’ and drops of essence called ‘bindus’. Kundalini is described as a sleeping dormant potential force coiled up at the base of the spine in the triangular sacrum bone in three and half coils. Hence the name Kundalini resembling a coiled-up serpent (Kundalini in faminine sense coming from the word Kundali which means coil). This is supposed to be the life force of a person, the creative potential of an individual. It travels through the chakras to distribute its energy throughout the body. The main purpose of Kundalini Yoga is to target the nervous system and create harmony in the body. The yoga consists of breathing exercises like pranayam, body postures like asanas, meditation like dhyana dharana and pratyahara mentioned earlier together with chanting of mantras like Satnaam, meaning truth is my identity.

We know that our spinal cord is structured in a peculiar manner. The vertebras of the spinal column are in the shape of figure eight written horizontally as (∞) and are piled up one on top of the other. The left-hand side is called Ida and the right side, the pingala providing channels for nerve current. The hollow canal running through the centre of the spinal cord is called Sushumna nadi. Where the spinal cord ends in some of the lumbar vertebras, a fine fiber issues downwards with the central canal running through this fiber. This finer canal in a coiled-up form is closed at the lower end which is situated near the sacral plexus. According to modern physiology the sacral plexus is triangular in form. The different plexuses such as the coccyreal, sacral, lumbar, dorsal, cervical, medullar, third eye and sahasrara; that have their centres in the spinal canal can very well stand for different lotuses or chakras of the yogis. At the lower most end of the hollow central canal is what the yogis call, the lotus of Kundalini or the Muladhara Chakra.

In fact, according to yogic descriptions chakras are the nerve centers and there are 1,72,000 nadis or channels of metaphysical energy as prana in our body. The nerve centers for these nadis are 109 in number out of which nine centers are important. Again, out of these nine, seven of them have primary significance which are called Chakras. The bottom most chakra located at the base of the spine as mentioned before is called the Muladhara Chakra where the Kundalini energy lies dormant in potential form. Just above the Muladhara behind the genitals is the second Chakra called Svadhistana Chakrra. Manipuram Chakra is the third one situated just above the navel. At the central region of the chest lies the Anahata Chakra. Above this around the neck region is the Visudha Chakra and in between the eyebrows lies the Ajna Chakra, which is called the third-eye. Finally, on the top of the head lies the Sahasrara Chakra.

When Kundalini at the Muladhara Chakra lying dormant is awakened, it tries to force a passage through the central hollow canal, the Sushumna nadi inside or outside the spinal and as it rises step by step through the various chakras; layer after layer of the mind becomes open and all different visions with wonderful power come to the yogi. When it reaches the top at Sahasrara Chakra in the brain the yogi feels perfectly detached from the body and the mind and the soul finds itself free or liberated. Thus, the progress of Kundalini through different chakras is believed to promote different levels of awakening leading to mystical experience until it finally reaches the crown chakra-the Sahasrara producing an extremely profound transformation of consciousness. Swami Sivanananda in his book ‘Kundalini Yoga’ states that-“Super sensual visions appear before the mental eye of the aspirant, new worlds with indiscernible wonder and charms unfold themselves before the yogi. Planes after planes reveal their existence and grandeur to the practitioner and the yogi gets divine knowledge, power and bliss in increasing degrees, when Kundalini passes through chakra after chakra, making them to bloom in all their glory.”

To be a little more explicit, it is said that ordinarily when Kundalini is not activated it promotes dullness and inertia with no interest in anything. However, when it is activated in Muladhara Chakra, one experiences enthusiasm. This activated energy then moves upward to the second chakra-Svadhistana behind the genital region to manifest its procreation impulse as sex drive as well as creative activities. Reaching the Manipuram Chakra, the next above in the naval region; it generates four flavours to the emotions as greed and jealousy as well as joy and generosity. From the naval region, this energy moves upward to the heart region, the Anahata Chakra manifesting thereby love, hatred and fear as well with any one of these three emotions taking precedence at a time. Rising up to visuddha chakra at the throat region it manifests as grief and gratitude. We know that the throat chokes in either of these two emotions. When it moves to the centre of the forehead to the Ajna Chakra it manifests as alertness, awareness, knowledge as well as anger. This region is also said to be the mystical third eye which is described as the seat of divine wisdom as well as the seat of anger. Finally, when Kundalini Shakti moves to the Sahasrara Chakra at the top of the head, one experiences bliss only. No longer one feels any duality, any sense of conflict or separation. One feels totally connected and one with everything. This upward as well as downward flow keeps on happening very naturally and spontaneously in life all the time.

Thus, one has an elaborate series of associations, all conveying the central concept of the cosmos as a manifestation of consciousness of pure subjectivity with Kundalini understood as the force or the energy inseparable from consciousness which animates the creation and in its peculiar form in the body, causes liberation through its illusion-shattering upward movement. In order to integrate this spiritual energy, a period of careful purification and strengthening of the body and one’s nervous system is very much required beforehand. Without a Guru, it is said that the awakening of Kundalini cannot take any one very far on the path. However, for the spiritual transmission by a Guru called the Shaktipata method to be effective, the body and spirit of the disciple must be prepared by yogic austerities such as pranayama, asana, meditation and chanting. The Guru who has already experienced Kundalini can raise Kundalini temporarily in his disciple to give him an experience to use it later as a basis for practice. Kundalini enables one to consciously cross the lower planes to ultimately merge into the universal cosmic power of which it is a part.

Conclusion

In the foregoing sections we have provided a cursory look to the vast literature of ancient Indian Vedic literature with all its ancillaries codifying the Indian Philosophy encompassing all aspects for living a meaningful and righteous life. We have mentioned here the six major schools of Vedic philosophy – Nyaya, Vaisheshika Purva Mimamsa, Shamskhya, Vedanta and Yoga belonging to the so-called orthodox category, which did not question the basic tenets of Vedic Philosophy the hallmark of Indian Spirituality preaching objective idealism. However, since ancient Indian spirit in its maturity of wisdom encouraged free flowing thoughts in all possible angles contributing even to rationalistic philosophy like Nyaya and Vaisheshika as well as materialistic philosophy of Charvak – Lokayat School including the Sramanic Schools like Jaina and Buddhists. These Sramanic Schools and Charvak-Lokayat belong to the un-orthodox schools. But as of now, there would be no denying of the fact that the Ancient Indian Wisdom prescribing a unique mind-body technology through ‘Yoga’ asserting primacy to mind over body for all round wellness in living a life has now captured the attention of the whole world.

Reference

Boorstin. D. J; ‘The Seekers, the story of man’s continuing quest to understand the world’, ECK Diana India, A sacred geography, Harmony Books, New York (2013).
Frawley David; ‘What is Hinduism? A guide for the global mind’, Bloomsbury Publishing, India Pvt Ltd. New Delhi (2018).
Ghose Aurobindo; ‘Thoughts and glimpses in Sri Aurobindo & mental Manifestation and other writings’, Vol. 16. Birth Centenary Library. All India Press, Pondicherry (1971).
May Muller, F. ‘The six systems of Indian Philosophy’. Associated Publishing house, New Delhi (1973).
Ramanchandra Yogi; ‘Hatha Yoga or The Yogic Philosophy of Wellbeing’, L. N. Powers Co. London.
Swamy Vivekananda; The Yogas and other works of Ramakrishna, Vivekananda Center, New York (1953).
The Song Celestial- Bhagabat Geeta, Jaico Publishing House, Bombay (1957).

The post Yoga Darshana The Unique Contribution of Ancient Indian Philosophy appeared first on Institute of Philosophy of Nature.

Nature of Truth and Reality

Niranjan Barik — Sat, 30 Aug 2025 05:27:52 +0000

“While we can know the things we encounter in our experiential interactions with the world’s realities as such, the realm of things in themselves are inherently unknown to us.”

-Emmanuel Kant- Critique of Pure Reason (1781)

“The Truth is what stands the test of experience.”

-Albert Einstein

“Spiritual Truth is a truth of the spirit, not a truth of the intellect, nor a mathematical theorem or a logical formula”.

-Sri Aurobinda

Abstract

Throughout the history of our civilization one can notice that the inquisitive human mind has been struggling to compresence all within himself and outside as well asking very difficult questions about temporal and eternal, about truth and reality, about the source of the all existence, about the origin and the cause behind all occurrences. Man has been continuing his search even till today in every possible way with all different resources or capabilities available to the mind and intellect to find satisfactory answers to all those questions. This perennial pursuit has been addressed in the domain of spiritual traditions as well as in scientific terms. Our purpose here is to give a brief account of the nature of the truth and reality as arrived at in various discussions.

Key words: Spiritual truth, Scientific truth, Source of existence, Origin of occurrence, Layers of reality, Ultimate reality, Quantum field theory, Pure consciousness, Truth Absolute.

Introduction

We have so far been discussing how human curiosity to understand and realize the true nature of Reality and Truth as the essence behind the phenomenal world, has led to the ceaseless pursuits in all possible ways, ever since the human mind woke up to the wondrous world both internally within himself and externally outside. All religions and spiritual traditions in fact represent the human mind’s very first attempt to decipher the universe it awoke to. The contemplative minds of all the ancient religions claimed to have witnessed the cosmos within the inner self to realize and experience, in reverie or meditative state, the Absolute Truth and Reality, which or been verbalized and expressed in various ways. In such experiential realization, the normal subject-object boundaries manifest in waking consciousness are altered completely presenting a feeling. This experiential or inter relationship with the cosmos. This experiential reality of a higher order beyond the space and time refers to an absolute and unchanging, remaining the same for all time for all people as the very ground of existence. With this conviction the seers of Vedic traditions in Mandukya Upanishad had declared that;

“Truth alone wins, not untruth.

By truth is established the path

That leads to the Divine;

by which the seers, who have

fulfilled their desires to reach

the supreme abode of Truth.”

(Mandukya Upanishad III.1.6)

Truth and Reality defined in this absolute term can be called the spiritual Truth. This is an experiential realization of connectedness with a Reality beyond the immediate sense perceptions of objects in space and time. It gives rise to a holistic type of knowing manifesting cognitively, emotionally and motivationally. They call it by various names the all-pervading supreme Consciousness, the embodiment of all potentialities, the ground of existence, the supreme God Divine etc. We would come back to this aspect further in subsequent sections.

Plato also believed in some kind of Truth and Reality belonging to an abstract realm beyond space & time consisting of ideal forms of geometrical nature. Pythagoras believed the ultimate Truth lies in mathematical numbers and propositions based on mathematical logic. Plato believed further that the physical world of our sense perception is only an illusion being a shadow or projection of that abstract mathematical realm. Truth conceived in this manner may be termed as the mathematical truth which is also beyond space and time in the so-called Platonic world.

Such views as above on Truth and Reality are wide spread in many metaphysical systems. Nevertheless, these views are commonly and completely unacceptable in the current scientific world view. Thus, in the scientific quest to understand the cosmos and the very ground of existence; the emerging science after the seventeenth century in Europe implicitly incorporated the Euro-centric perspective of discarding the older Truth-seeking traditions as pre-scientific and thus invalid. Instead it viewed the world to be so obviously material in nature that any suggestion of an underlying Truth as an immaterial prime aspect of the very ground of existence must be rejected having no basis for Reality. Therefore, science ventured to explore the ultimate Truth within the material structure of the cosmos considering space, time, matter and energy to be the most fundamental ingredients with matter as the primal entity. Thus, according to such materialistic scientific paradigm; matter-energy and space-time reside at the foundation of Reality and all other immaterial qualities like mind or consciousness etc. emerged out of it. Therefore, science engaged itself in exploring the ultimate Truth in the form of the immutable laws of nature and the fundamental building blocks of matter applying a reductionist approach. The laws of nature are expressed in abstract mathematical formulations embracing the so-called mathematical Truths for the scientific descriptions of the ways of the world and the Reality explored in the process. These rational findings may be termed as the scientific Truth about which we may draw our critical attention again in the following section.

The Scientific Truth and the nature of Reality

In modern parlance Truth is considered as that which corresponds to Reality. In that sense science; in search of Truth; engages itself in understanding the Reality to its fullest extent. We would highlight again how science has explored the various layers of physical reality in the wake of the revolution brought about by relativity and quantum physics. In fact, the physical reality of the material world is understood as having layered structures, though no neatly stacked layers. These layers may be considered as different levels of description as one proceeds from the gross to the finer and deeper levels unfolding the enchanting and dynamic nature of the physical reality.

The first layer of this reality, according to scientific views, is the observable universe of material objects and the natural phenomena all around us that we normally perceive through our senses. This is the only reality for a lay person in conformity with our common sense. This is also the reality that seems to exist outside of us, which led Descartes and his followers to believe that there is a distinct separateness or split between matter and mind or between the object and the observer. Classical Science dealt with the physical reality at this level adopting a mechanical world view. We are not outfitted with an X-ray vision to see what is inside this first level of reality appearing as solid, substantial, concrete material bodies. The next level of reality, which our ordinary senses are not equipped to perceive; required a great leap in our imagination as well as necessary tools as mechanical extensions of our senses, which include not only electron microscopes, particle-accelerators etc. but also intricate mathematical constructs and abstract models for visualization. The idea that everything is made of atoms and molecules goes all the way back to the 3rd century BCE with Kanada Kashyap of Vaishika Darshana and the Greek Philosopher Democritus. But what exactly is an atom made of; say the simplest hydrogen atom? As we know now this is simply a proton orbited by an electron. Similarly, other atoms are built with a central nucleus consisting of neutrons and protons surrounded by an appropriate number of orbiting electrons. Again, we know that protons and neutrons are made up of other elementary particles called quarks, while an electron is itself an elementary particle. More than 99.98% of the atom’s mass is due to the heavy nucleus consisting of neutrons and protons. The radius of an atom is about a few angstroms (1 Angstrom = 10-10m). Considering the relative size of the atom and its nucleus; and their corresponding volumes; it follows obviously to reveal that almost 99.99999…% of the atomic volume is empty space. Thus, solidity is not a result of an actual content of matter, but rather a property resulting from the interactions of electrons. What a trick that the reality at this level plays by projecting the illusion of solidity of objects! This tangible aspect of material objects providing the very sensation of the physical, is based astonishingly on nothingness.

All the matter that makes up our everyday world with complicated structures we recognize as stars, planets, with plants, birds, animals and human beings, is primarily composed of two kinds of fundamental particles Palled fundamental fermions and bosons. Quarks and electrons belong to this class of fermions which provide the material contents. The fundamental bosons include another class of particles which provide all types of bindings to these material contents necessary for various structure formations. These are the force-carrying particles called gauge bosons. Besides these fundamental fermions and bosons, science has discovered a zoo of subatomic particles and their mirror world of antiparticles revealing a far greater structure to reality at this level, which is not only quite astonishing but also very bizarre with all the quantum weirdness at its heart. The subatomic particles display contradictory dual behaviors as waves and particles depending on if and how they are observed. At this quantum level of reality any certainty is lost and measurement can only be expressed as probabilities. In other words, the location of such a particle is only probabilistic, so that it could be observed where in the universe however small the probability may be. As a result, it can appear at places ordinarily forbidden for it in a process called quantum tunneling. These quantum particles do not have any definite properties of their own including any definite location or motion at any instant of time before observation. They exist as potentialities only having certain tendencies to be revealed only if and how a measurement is made on them to observe. Thus, the sharp boundary between the object and the observer melts away at this quantum level of reality. It is all the more baffling to know that the marriage of such quantum entities allows them to stay connected in quantum entanglement and be both instantaneously influenced regardless of their spatial separation between them. This clearly violates the classical local realism revealing the non-local nature of the reality at this level. Such instantaneous communication between the two entangled quantum entities is in contradiction with special theory of relativity according to which there is an upper limit to how fast information can travel in the universe and that is the cosmic speed limit as the speed of light.

After coming across all these mind-boggling natures of the quantum entities considered as the constituents of matter at its deeper level; we may now ask what these constituent parts are which are not particles in the real sense of the term having no definite location and motion besides the other aspects. In fact, these constituent parts are in a constant state of flux and the propeller of this flux is energy. In other words, they are nothing but discrete packets of energy. If all things are made of this abstract immaterial substance known as energy; why do we see them as stable and unchanging? Why don’t the fundamental elementary particles simply diffuse or fall apart? Why all the elementary particles belonging to a particular species such as say electrons are all absolutely identical everywhere in the Universe, no matter when or where they are created. This is because they have a fixed confined energy; confined like a genie in a bottle. But here the bottles are not physical; they are known as fields which are real; though abstract. These fermions and bosons are identified as the discrete quantas of their respective fields. We have now entered the third layer of reality, where the matter fields of the fermions and the force fields of the bosons seem to be more primary than matter itself, since these fields behave as the breeding ground for the so-called elementary particles. Therefore, fields are some dynamic manifestation of a charged think of. We are of course quite familiar with the classical think of fields, whose influence is felt locally; like our earth’s field or the electrostatic field of a of gravity body and the magnetic field of a magnet. Considering these cases, one could easily be misled into thinking that field is something that arises from matter retaining the primacy of matter. But in fact, this is not true. The truth is far stranger. Even if one imagines a universe with no material objects leaving an absolute void, still then these un-manifested fields, known as quantum fields would be found to pervade all space and time. These fields are non-local in the sense that they are felt equally in all parts of the universe. Again, unlike our familiar classical fields, the magnitude of energy of a quantum field is not continuous but appears in discrete or quantized lumps, what we called elementary particles. Frank Wilczek, an exponent of quantum field theory and a Nobel laureate sums it up as: –

“In quantum field theory, the primary elements of reality are not individual particles, but underlying fields….”. These quantum fields do possess their usual quantum nature of not being locatable in any geometrical sense although they are everywhere. This is according to Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle, so that a quantum field cannot have a definite value at any given instant, not even the value zero. As a result, the amplitude as a measure of its size must change all the time resulting in what are known as vacuum fluctuations. The effect of these fluctuations is revealed in several phenomena observed experimentally. Notable amongst all these phenomena is the Casimir Effect, which the Dutch physicist Hendrick Casimir predicted in 1948 in order to demonstrate the effect of vacuum fluctuations of quantum electromagnetic fields. According to this, a measurable force can be seen to act to push together two parallel metal plates even in vacuum. This was conclusively demonstrated in 1996 by Physicist Steven Lamoreaux establishing the existence of electromagnetic ghost force in vacuum and thus validating the notion that all fields at quantum level fluctuate. This provides the strongest evidence for the actuality of the un-manifested quantum fields in vacuum. The wild fluctuations of the un-manifested fields create a quantum frenzy at microscopic dimensions of space creating pairs of virtual particles of matter and antimatter by borrowing energy from space in accordance with the uncertainty principle. The larger the energy debt, the shorter is the time to pay back when these pairs of virtual particles annihilate each other. These virtual particles are like ocean sprays thrown up when turbulent ocean waves crash with each other or against the rocks only to fall back into the ocean from which it came. But only when sufficient energy surplus is made available by any source, stable particles can emerge from the quantum fields to have a real existence in the universe. Without this surplus energy there are only virtual particles. This energy is the zero-point energy of the quantum fields called vacuum energy, which becomes available by a process called spontaneous symmetry breaking. This unseen but ubiquitous quantum fields and their vacuum fluctuations together with the so-called spontaneous breaking of symmetry may seem utterly alien because of its abstractness and the very esoteric mathematics involved in the construction of the standard model of particle physics. The triumph of the standard model in explaining all the observed fundamental particles is a hall mark of twentieth century physics.

Thus, the un-manifested quantum fields interlace throughout the cosmos like multidimensional fabrics woven in such a way that each infinitesimal weave of the fabric contains, so to say, the whole cloth. Regardless of our puzzlements, the omnipresent quantum fields permeate the whole space, definitely as a further layer of the reality of this phantom world in which there is no such thing as empty space. Thus, science seems to have found the most crucial elements of existence in the quantum vacuum by comprehending this intrinsic fundamental reality of our cosmos in support of the concept of the ‘one source’ – the nothingness or sunyata of Buddhism or the ‘Brahman’ of the Vedantic tradition. The analysis of the structure of reality at the macroscopic as well as the microscopic level to find a solid foundation of reality has landed the philosophers of science to wonder whether there is something fundamentally flawed in the idea of a world built up of matter. P. Davies and J. Gribbin in their book ‘The Matter Myth;’ summarize about the current paradigm shift, we are witnessing with the following words:

“It is fitting that physics, the science that gave us materialism, should also signal the demise of materialism. During this century the new physics has blown apart the central tenets of materialist doctrine in a sequence of stunning developments. First came the theory of relativity, which demolished Newton’s assumption about space and time -assumptions that still hold sway in our everyday commonsense view of the world. The very arena in which the clock-work universe acted out its drama was now exposed as subject to shifting and warping. Then came the quantum theory, which totally transformed our image of matter. The old assumption that the microscopic world of atoms was simply as scaled down version of the everyday world had to be abandoned. Newton’s deterministic machine was replaced by a shadowy and paradoxical conjunction of waves and particles governed by the laws of chance rather than the rigid rules of causality. An extension of quantum theory, known as the quantum field theory, goes even beyond this, it paints a picture in which solid matter dissolves away, to be replaced by weird excitations and vibrations of invisible field energy. In this theory, little distinction remains between material substance and apparent empty space which itself seethes with ephemeral quantum activity.”

Han-Peter Durr, a renowned physicist who was the successor of Heisenberg in 1978 as the director of the Max-Planck-Institute for physics in Munich also ended up with a mystical view of reality with a bold claim that “Matter does not exist! Therefore, I have worked fifty years on a notion that is inexistent. This was an extra ordinary experience: Learning that something, whose reality everyone is convinced of, in the end, does not exist.”

Adding further on this, the remark by P. Davies and N.H. Gregersen in their book ‘Information and the Nature of Reality: From physics to Metaphysics (2014), we quote here as: – “One has the sense that, at the end of the day, the speculation of the philosophers and the data from the scientists are pointing in the same surprising direction. At the root of tall physical reality is not primary matter.”

Thus, one comes to realize that the more science moves away from common sense to intellectually visualize and understand the real world using powerful mathematical abstractions, the harder it becomes to decide what constitutes a mere model and what is supposed to be a faithful description of reality. Science has been following the age-old conviction that mathematics represents the blueprint for reality and the deep truths about the workings of the world. And therefore, it ventures into the realms in the abstract world of mathematics in building theoretical models which interrelate with the workings of the physical world from the quantum weirdness comprising reality to the awe-inspiring vastness of the cosmic fabric in the form of the quantum frenzy of the void. This translation aspect of reality into abstract representations with a purpose to decode the deep truths ultimately leads to ever changing descriptions of scientific truths and realities in terms of physical concepts. Albert Einstein had once remarked – “Physical concepts are free creations of the human mind, and are not, however it may seem, determined by the external world.”

Therefore, such physical concepts, although they are true in the sense of the predictions of the abstract theoretical models based on solid mathematical logic and the support of experimental evidence; they do not describe the true nature of Reality. The concepts describing the truth are model dependent corresponding to a particular level of description. As one proceeds to the deeper and deeper levels in the description, more and more abstract formulations of mathematical models come to the fore with newer concepts describing reality. Therefore, this intellectual enterprise of the human mind may be called scientific realism which is based on the foundation of mathematical truth. For a better assessment and appreciation of this scientific realism, it is worthwhile to understand the scope of mathematical truth encoding the physical reality which is deciphered as the scientific truth.

Conclusion

Thus, we placed here the arguments in favour of the spiritual truth as the Truth Absolute to represent the ultimate Reality as against the scientific truth. This has been described in the widest variety of wisdom traditions referring it variously as attribute-less potentiality-the ‘Brahman’ or as the cosmic consciousness – the ‘Purusha’. This pure consciousness is said to be experienced in an elevated state of awareness. The Yogasutras of Patanjali, for example, explains that at the state of perfection, one’s mind relaxes and settles down so completely within itself that it is no longer aware of any objects, sensations, thoughts, feelings and not even the subjective spatio-temporal manifold in which all our other experiences occur. The complete absence of any empirical content is the characteristic of this experience. When all of the phenomenal objects of one’s conscious awareness disappear and yet one remains awake; it is the consciousness alone by itself that is experienced. This experience is, of course, a very unusual one and is hardly ever found in the absence of the practice of meditative techniques to produce it. The veracity of such claims has been investigated to some extent by modern science to make it clear that the mystic experience talked about so often is associated with a very unusual physiology, where overall metabolic processes settle down to such an extent that even at times breathing almost stops entirely. A considerable body of research has come to be conducted on these meditative techniques including some on the physiological correlates during the experience in question. In the laboratory settings, at least, reports of the experience are often highly correlated not only with significant reduction of metabolic activity, but also with cases of complete cessation of respiration which is in conformity with the ancient texts. There are also other unusual physiological features such as changes in blood chemistry, very high inter-hemispheric EEG-Coherence etc. have been noticed. The significance of such research results shows that it is not a mere belief system that could itself produce the unique physiological state described above relating to the unique experience. It is even less reasonable to think that the different belief systems of Yoga, Vedanta, Taoism, Medieval Christianity etc. should all converge to produce the same unique physiological state leading to the experiential accounts of pure quality less awareness as the common underlying experiences.

Thus this ‘pure consciousness’-experience is extraordinarily abstract, having no concrete phenomenological objects like colors, sounds, tastes, smells, shapes or even thoughts in it at all. However, it does have some contents, namely, pure abstract bliss, joy, happiness or fulfillment unbounded in intensity and independent of all the things we ordinarily associate it with. Bhagabat-Gita puts it (verses 6.18. to 6.28) as;

“Having established the mind in the Self (i.e. pure consciousness), let him not think at all, for supreme happiness comes to the yogi whose mind is deep in peace. Thus, collecting himself the yogi…. with ease attains contact with … infinite joy, free from craving for any pleasure. Having gained (that) which he counts no other gain as higher.”

Having said all that; the question no doubt arises; ‘what is it like, if it is not like ‘anything’? Can science stretch its limits beyond quantum physics and its implications to come to terms with this abstract concept of ‘consciousness’ vouched as the spiritual truth and the Ultimate Reality?

Reference

“Glatter felder, J. B.; -What is Reality? George and the Blue Moon, Random House, London (2016b).
Maudlin, T.; – The Metaphysics Within Physics, Oxford University Press (2007).
Bhaumik, M.; -Code Name God. Penguin Books, Random House India Pvt. Ltd. (2006)
Young, A. M.; – Mathematics, Physics and Reality. Robert Biggs Associates, Portland, Oregon (1990).
Barik, N., & Das, G.; – Mysticism and Science – An Indian Context. Notion Press, New Delhi (2022).

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